The aim of this article is to analyze the main contributions of Wesley C. Salmon to the philosophy of science, that is, his concepts of causation, common cause, and theoretical explanation, and to provide a critique of them. This critique will be based on a comparison of Salmon’s concepts with categories developed by Hegel in his Science of Logic and which can be applied to issues treated by Salmon by means of the above given three concepts. It is the author’s contention that by means of Hegelian categories it becomes possible to provide a critique of Salmon’s philosophy of science and at the same time to enlarge the concept framework of philosophy of science., Cílem tohoto článku je analyzovat hlavní přínosy Wesleyho C. Lososa k filosofii vědy, tj. K jeho příčinám, společné příčině a teoretickému vysvětlení, a poskytnout jim kritiku. Tato kritika bude založena na srovnání konceptů Salmon s kategoriemi vyvinutými Hegelem v jeho Science of Logic a které lze aplikovat na otázky ošetřené lososem pomocí výše uvedených tří pojmů. Je to autorovo tvrzení, že prostřednictvím hegelovských kategorií je možné poskytnout kritiku Salmonovy filosofie vědy a zároveň rozšířit koncepční rámec filozofie vědy., and Igor Hanzel
In May 1980, the WEDOC-1 was carried out covering 14 simultaneous stations and establishing a first link between observatories in Western and Eastern Europe. In order to improve the results of WEDOC-1 using a better station configuration and refined software and calibration techniques a second campaign WEDOC-2 was initiated by Graz (Austria) and Penc (Hungary). The configuration comprized 27 stations in 18 countries which carried out simultaneous Doppler observations from September 6th to 16th, 1983. Four different calibration campaigns were used to estimate receiver and program biases. Station coordinates have been computed by means of the programs GEODOP in Graz and SADOSA in Budapest. and V maje 1980 g. byla osuščestvlena kampanija "WEDOC-1", v kotoruju vključilos' 14 stancij. Vpervyje osuščestvlena privjazka meždu observatorijami Zapadnoj i Vostočnoj Jevropy. Čtoby ulučšit' rezul'taty kampanii "WEDOC-1" vtoraja kampanija "WEDOC-2" byla osuščestvlena observatorijami Grac (Avstrija) i Penc (Vengrija) s ulučšennoj konfiguracijej stancij, ulučšennym obespečenijem i technikoj kalibrovki. Konfiguracija vključila 27 stancij v 18 stranach, kotoryje vypolnili sinchronnyje nabljudenija s 6 - 16 sentjabrja 1983 g. Primenili četyre raznych kampanii kalibrovki, čtoby ocenit' pograšnosti prijemnika i vyčislitelnoj programmy. Koordinaty stancij byli vyčisleny s pomošč'ju programm GEODOP v Grace i SADOSA v Budapešte.
Since Antiquity, logic has always enjoyed a status of something crucially important, because it shows us how to reason, if we are to reason correctly. Yet the twentieth century fostered an unprecedented boost in logical studies and delivered a wealth of results, most of which are not only not understandable by non-specialists, but their very connection with the original agenda of logic is far from clear. In this paper, I survey how the achievements of modern logic are construed by non-specialists and subject their construals to critical scrutiny. I argue that logic cannot be taken as a theory of the limits of our world and that its prima facie most plausible construal as a theory of reasoning is too unclear to be taken at face value. I argue that the viable construal of logic takes it to be explicative of the constitutive (rather than strategic) rules of reasoning, not of the rules that tell us how to reason, but rather of rules that make up the tools with which (or in terms of which) we reason., Od starověku se logika vždy těšila stavu něčeho zásadně důležitého, protože nám ukazuje, jak rozumět, pokud máme správně rozumět. Dvacáté století však podpořilo bezprecedentní oživení v logických studiích a přineslo mnoho výsledků, z nichž většina není nejen srozumitelná pro nešpecializované odborníky, ale jejich samotné spojení s původní logikou logiky není zdaleka jasné. V tomto příspěvku zkoumám, jak jsou úspěchy moderní logiky konstruovány nešpecializovanými odborníky a podřizují jejich konstrukty kritické kontrole. Domnívám se, že logiku nelze považovat za teorii hranic našeho světa a její prima facienejspolehlivější konstrukční jako teorie uvažování je příliš nejasná, aby mohla být přijata v nominální hodnotě. Domnívám se, že životaschopná konstrukce logiky má za to, že je vysvětlující konstitutivní (spíše než strategická) pravidla uvažování, nikoli pravidla, která nám říkají, jak rozumět, ale spíše pravidla, která tvoří nástroje, s nimiž (nebo v podmínky) rozumíme., and Jaroslav Peregrin
A number of effects which can affect the low-mass IMF derived from the local luminosity function is studied. We consider an influence of unresolved binairies, variations in fine structure of mass-luminosity relation, BC-scale, chemical composition, and evolution of brown dwarfs. The mass-luminosity relation is found to be the main factor defining the IMF. As analysis shows, different theoretical relations calculated for Pop I composition result in different IMFs /from a power law, to a lognormal one/. The presence at faintest magnitudes /Mν > 20^m/ of a large number of brown dwarfs, slowly evolving with decreasing luminosity, leads to the depletion of the luminosity function for both lognormal and power IMFs.
Psychostimulants, as well as cannabinoids, have been shown to
significantly affect a great variety of behaviors in both humans
and laboratory animals. Our previous studies have repeatedly
demonstrated that the application of the vehicle for
psychostimulants, i.e. saline, to control groups, generated
different behavioral test results compared to absolute naïve
controls (i.e. without any injection). Therefore, our present study
has set three goals: (1) to evaluate the effect of three different
psychostimulant drugs, (2) to evaluate the effect of three doses
of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and (3) to evaluate the
effect of saline and ethanol injections vs sham injections and no
injection on spontaneous behavior of adult male rats. The
LABORAS test (Metris B.V., Netherlands) was used to examine
spontaneous locomotor activity and exploratory behavior in an
unknown environment over 1 h. In Experiment 1,
psychostimulant drugs were tested: single subcutaneous (s.c.)
injections of amphetamine (5 mg/kg), cocaine (5 mg/kg), and
3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) (5 mg/kg) were
applied prior to testing. Control animals received the same
volume (1 ml/kg) of s.c. saline. In Experiment 2, the effect of
three doses of THC (1, 2, and 5 mg/kg, s.c.) were examined.
An s.c. injection of vehicle (ethanol) was used as a control. In
Experiment 3, injections of saline and ethanol were compared to
the group receiving a sham s.c. injection and to a group of
absolute “naïve” controls. Our results demonstrated that (1) all
psychostimulants increased locomotion time, distance traveled,
and speed while decreasing immobility time of adult male rats
relative to saline controls. The most prominent effect was
associated with MDMA; (2) The effect of THC was dosedependent and was most apparent within the first 10 min of the
LABORAS test. (3) With regard to the effect of injection: absolute
controls (without injection) compared to animals injected with
ethanol, saline, or sham-injected displayed reduced immobility
time, traveled longer distances, and had increased speed. In
conclusion, our data showed drug dependent behavioral changes
in adult male rats after application of psychostimulants and
cannabinoids. Our findings also suggest that not only drugs but
the actual single injection per se also affects the behavior of
laboratory animals in an unknown environment. This effect
seems to be associated with the acute stress associated
with the injection.
The article considers the nature of descriptive statements and the ontological status of descriptive constructs in linguistics, taking the example of a phoneme of English. It is argued that descriptive statements should be seen as expressions of the content of descriptive models or as hypotheses. Furthermore, it is argued that descriptive models and constructs in linguistics have a purely explanatory function in relation to speech events and without ontological commitment to corresponding entities in the real world., Článek pojednává o povaze popisných výroků a ontologickém stavu deskriptivních konstrukcí v lingvistice, přičemž vychází z příkladu fonému angličtiny. Argumentuje se tím, že popisná prohlášení by měla být chápána jako vyjádření obsahu popisných modelů nebo jako hypotézy. Dále, to je argumentoval, že popisné modely a konstrukce v lingvistice mají čistě vysvětlující funkci ve vztahu k událostem řeči a bez ontologického závazku k odpovídajícím entitám v reálném světě., and Paul Rastall