Monthly evapotranspiration (ET) rates over Hungary for 2000-2008 are mapped at a spatial scale of about 1 km with the help of MODIS daytime land surface temperature as well as sunshine duration, air temperature and humidity data. Mapping is achieved by a linear transformation of MODIS daytime land surface temperature values employing the complementary relationship of evaporation. Validation of the ET rates has been performed at spatial scales spanning almost three magnitudes from a few hundred meters to about a hundred kilometers employing eddy-covariance (EC) measurements and catchment water balance closures. Typically the unbiased ET estimates are within 15 % of EC values at a monthly basis, within 7 % at an annual, and within only a few percent at a multi-year basis. The ET estimates yield an especially remarkable match (relative error of 0.2 %, R2 = 0.95) with high-tower EC measurements at a monthly basis. The spatial distribution of the ET estimates confirm earlier, complex regional hydrologic model results and observations as well as yields a perfect estimate of the country’s precipitation recycling index (the ratio of the multi-year mean ET and precipitation rates spatially aggregated for the whole country) of 89.2 % vs an observed value of 89.6 %. The CREMAP method is very simple, easy to implement, requires minimal data, calibration-free, and works accurately when conditions for the complementary relationship are met. and Pomocou údajov ročlenených podľa MODIS (moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer), s využitím dennej povrchovej teploty, trvania slnečného svitu, teploty vzduchu a jeho vlhkosti boli zostrojené mapy mesačnej evapotranspirácie (ET) Maďarska pre roky 2000-2008 s priestorovým rozlíšením približne 1 km. Mapovanie bolo zrealizované lineárnou transformáciou MODIS dennej teploty povrchu s uvážením doplňujúceho vzťahu pre evapotranspiráciu CR, navrhnutou Bouchetom (1963). Výsledky dosiahnuté touto metódou boli verifikované v priestorovej mierke pokrývajúcej tri rády od niekoľkých stoviek metrov po stovky kilometrov, použijúc merania metódou pulzácií (eddy covariance, EC), a bilanciou vody v koncovom profile povodí. Typicky, hodnoty ET sú v medziach 15 % mesačných hodnôt EC a 7 % ročných hodnôt a len v medziach niekoľkých percent viacročných hodnôt evapotranspirácie, ktoré boli určené inými metódami. Hodnoty ET sú v dobrej zhode s výsledkami meraní ET na vysokej veži metódou EC (relatívna chyba 0.2 %, R2 = 0,95). Priestorové rozdelenia vypočítaných hodnôt ET potvrdzujú predchádzajúce výsledky modelovania regionálnymi modelmi, ako aj hodnoty indexu recyklácie zrážok krajiny (precipitation recycling index), čo je pomer mnohoročnej priemernej ET a zrážok agregovaných v krajine, s hodnotou 89,2 % vs pozorovaná hodnota 89,6 %. Metóda CREMAP je jednoduchá, ľahko implementovateľná, vyžaduje minimum vstupných hodnôt, nie je ju potrebné kalibrovať a keď sú splnené podmienky jej použiteľnosti, je aj dostatočne presná.
In order to fulfil their essential roles as the bearers of truth and the relata of logical relations, propositions must be public and shareable. That requirement has favoured Platonist and other non-mental views of them, despite the well-known problems of Platonism in general. Views that propositions are mental entities have correspondingly fallen out of favour, as they have difficulty in explaining how propositions could have shareable, objective properties. We revive a mentalist view of propositions, inspired by Artificial Intelligence work on perceptual algorithms, which shows how perception causes persistent mental entities with shareable properties that allow them to fulfil the traditional roles of (one core kind of) propositions. The clustering algorithms implemented in perception produce outputs which are (implicit) atomic propositions in different minds. Coordination of them across minds proceeds by game-theoretic processes of communication. The account does not rely on any unexplained notions such as mental content, representation, or correspondence (although those notions are applicable in philosophical analysis of the result).
Serious damage may occur to concrete hydraulic structures, such as water galleries, spillways, and stilling basins, due to the abrasive erosion caused by the presence of solid particles in the flow. This underlines the importance of being capable in providing characterization of the concrete from the point of view of its vulnerability to abrasive erosion, in order to improve the design of the structure and the material selection. Nevertheless, the existing apparatus for concrete abrasive erosion testing are either far from allowing realistic simulation of the actual environment in which this phenomenon occurs, or show a large degree of complexity and cost. An alternative method has been developed with the aid of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). CFD was first employed to verify the effectiveness of a new laboratory equipment. Afterwards, a parameter has been introduced which, by successful comparison against preliminary experiments, proved suitable to quantify the effect of the fluid dynamic conditions on the concrete abrasive erosion, thereby opening the way to CFD-based customization of the apparatus. In the future, the synergy of numerical and physical modelling will allow developing predictive models for concrete erosion, making it possible to reliably simulate real structures.
A number of correlations for friction factor determinations in smooth pipes have been proposed in the past decades. The accuracy and applicability of these friction factor formulas should be examined. Based on this notion the paper is designed to provide a comparative study of friction factor correlations in smooth pipes for all flow regimes of Bingham fluids. Nine models were chosen. The comparisons of the selected equations with the existing experimental results, which are available in the literature, were expressed through MARE, MRE+ , MRE- , RMSE, Ѳ, and S. The statistical comparisons were also carried out using MSC and AIC. The analyses show that the Wilson-Thomas (1985) and Morrison (2013) models are best fit models to the experimental data for the Reynolds number up to 40000. Within this range, both models can be used alternately. But beyond this Re value the discrepancy of the Wilson-Thomas model is higher than the Morrison model. In view of the fact that the Morrison model requires fewer calculations and parameters as well as a single equation is used to compute the friction factor for all flow regimes, it is the authors’ advice to use this model for friction factor estimation for the flow of Bingham fluids in smooth pipes as an alternative to the Moody chart and other implicit formulae.
Variable rate technology (VRT) in nutrient management has been developed in order to apply crop inputs according to the required amount of fertilizers. Meteorological conditions rarely differ within one field; however, differences in soil conditions responding to precipitation or evaporation results within field variations. These variations in soil properties such as moisture content, evapotranspiration ability, etc. requires site-specific treatments for the produced crops. There is an ongoing debate among experts on how to define management zones as well as how to define the required amount of fertilizers for phosphorus and nitrogen replenishment for winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) production. For management zone delineation, vegetation based or soil based data collection is applied, where various sensor technology or remote sensing is in help for the farmers. and The objective of the study reported in this paper was to investigate the effect of soil moisture data derived from Sentinel-2 satellite images moisture index and variable rate phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizer by means of variable rate application (VRA) in winter wheat in Mezőföld, Hungary. Satellite based moisture index variance at the time of sowing has been derived, calculated and later used for data comparison. Data for selected points showed strong correlation (R2 = 0.8056; n = 6) between moisture index and yield, however generally for the whole field correlation does not appear. Vegetation monitoring has been carried out by means of NDVI data calculation. On the field level, as indicated earlier neither moisture index values at sowing nor vegetation index data was sufficient to determine yield. Winter wheat production based on VRA treatment resulted significant increase in harvested crop: 5.07 t/h in 2013 compared to 8.9 t/ha in 2018. Uniformly managed (control) areas provided similar yield as VRA treated areas (8.82 and 8.9 t/ha, respectively); however, the input fertilizer was reduced by 108 kg/ha N and increased by 37 kg/ha P.
Physicalism demands an explication of what it means for something to be physical. But the most popular way of providing one—viz., characterizing the physical in terms of the postulates of a scientifically derived physical theory—is met with serious trouble. Proponents of physicalism can either appeal to current physical theory or to some future physical theory (preferably an ideal and complete one). Neither option is promising: currentism almost assuredly renders physicalism false and futurism appears to render it indeterminate or trivial. The purpose of this essay is to argue that attempts to characterize the mental encounter a similar dilemma: currentism with respect to the mental is likely to be inadequate or contain falsehoods and futurism leaves too many significant questions about the nature of mentality unanswered. This new dilemma, we show, threatens both sides of the current debate surrounding the metaphysical status of the mind.
Stacie Friend’s theory of fiction departs from those approaches that seek to identify the necessary and sufficient conditions for a work to count as fiction. She argues that this goal cannot really be achieved; instead, she appeals to the notion of genre to distinguish between fiction and nonfiction. This notion is significantly more flexible, since it invites us to identify standard—but not necessary—and counter-standard features of works of fiction in light of our classificatory practices. More specifically, Friend argues that the genre of fiction has the genre of nonfiction—and only that genre—as its contrast class. I will refer to the particular way in which Friend elaborates this claim as the contrast view. I have, nevertheless, the impression that this view unnecessarily narrows down the array of perspectives and attitudes from which we can approach works of fiction. I will thus develop a line of reasoning to the effect that the contrast view should rather be construed as picking out a particular way of relating to works of fiction that lies at the end of a continuum defined by different degrees of reflectivity and estrangement. This implies that the contrast view is false as a general claim about how we experience works of fiction, even though this view may appropriately depict a specific way of approaching such works.
This paper discusses an experiment in cognitive psychology called the Linda problem. Firstly, some natural conditions for the correctness of the interpretation of psychological experiments (such as the Linda problem) are formulated. The article is essentially a critique of the interpretation of the results of the Linda problem experiment provided by Kahneman and Tversky as well as – indirectly – their concept of heuristics. It is shown that the interpretation provided by Kahneman and Tversky does not meet the aforementioned conditions for correctness. The main argument is justified utilizing such rules of rationality as conditional probability and Grice’s conversational maxims. It is also pointed out that this argument can be reformulated in terms of the intuitive system of reasoning., Tento příspěvek pojednává o experimentu v kognitivní psychologii nazývaném problém Lindy. Za prvé jsou formulovány některé přírodní podmínky pro správnost interpretace psychologických experimentů (jako je problém Lindy). Článek je v podstatě kritikou interpretace výsledků problému Linda, který poskytli Kahneman a Tversky, stejně jako - nepřímo - jejich pojetí heuristiky. Ukazuje se, že výklad poskytnutý Kahnemanem a Tversky nesplňuje výše uvedené podmínky správnosti. Hlavní argument je odůvodněn použitím takových pravidel racionality jako podmíněné pravděpodobnosti a Griceho konverzačních maxim. Rovněž je zdůrazněno, že tento argument lze přeformulovat z hlediska intuitivního systému uvažování., and Adam Olszewski
This paper deals with the application of a fluidized layer of granular material (FLGM) for the direct separation of destabilized impurities during drinking water treatment. Further, it investigates the effect of operation parameters (fluidized layer grain size, technological arrangement, velocity gradient, retention time, dosage of destabilisation reagent and temperature) on the aggregation and separation efficiency of the layer. The tests were carried out in a pilot plant scale. Aluminium sulphate was used as the destabilisation reagent. The highest separation efficiencies were achieved, when the particles entered the fluidized layer immediately after the dosing of the destabilisation reagent, when they had the lowest degree of aggregation. The separation efficiency (ϕ) also increased with increasing velocity gradient and the maximal value was reached at the velocity gradient of about 250 s-1. The most efficient separation of aluminium was achieved at 5 °C, but the effect of temperature on the efficiency of organic matter separation (ϕTOC) was not very significant. The maximal efficiency of separation on the layer grains reached the values ϕAl = 0.81 at the optimal dosage DAl = 1.55 mg L-1 and ϕTOC = 0.31 at the optimal dosage DAl = 2.36 mg L-1. The indisputable advantage of using FLGM for the separation of impurities is that they are intercepted on the layer grains in a form of solid, water-free shell (or coat) with the density of 2450 kg m-3, and there is no need to deal with the sludge dewatering. and Příspěvek se zabývá využitím fluidní vrstvy zrnitého materiálu (FLGM) pro přímou separaci destabilizovaných nečistot při úpravě vody a vlivem provozních parametrů (velikost zrn náplně, technologické uspořádání, gradient rychlosti, doba zdržení, dávka destabilizačního činidla, teplota) na agregační a separační účinnost vrstvy. Testy byly prováděny na poloprovozním modelu fluidní vrstvy. Jako destabilizační činidlo byl použit síran hlinitý. Nejvyšší separační účinnosti byly dosahovány, pokud částice nečistot vstupovaly do fluidní vrstvy bezprostředně po nadávkování destabilizačního činidla, kdy byl jejich stupeň agregace nejnižší. Separační účinnost (ϕ) se také zvyšovala s narůstající hodnotou gradientu rychlosti ve fluidní vrstvě a maximální hodnoty dosáhla při gradientu kolem 250 s-1. Hliník byl nejúčinněji separován při nízké teplotě (5 °C), nicméně na účinnost separace organických látek (ϕTOC) teplota příliš velký vliv neměla. Maximální účinnost separace na zrnech fluidní vrstvy dosáhla hodnot ϕAl = 0,81 při optimální dávce DAl = 1,55 mg L-1 a ϕTOC = 0,31 při optimální dávce DAl = 2,36 mg L-1. Nespornou výhodou využití fluidní vrstvy jako separačního prvku je skutečnost, že nečistoty jsou na zrnech FLGM zachycovány ve formě pevné skořápky (hustota 2450 kg m-3), která neobsahuje kapalnou vodu, a kal tudíž nemusí být odvodňován.
Slurry transport in horizontal and vertical pipelines is one of the major means of transport of sands and gravels in the dredging industry. There exist 4 main flow regimes, the fixed or stationary bed regime, the sliding bed regime, the heterogeneous flow regime and the homogeneous flow regime. Of course the transitions between the regimes are not very sharp, depending on parameters like the particle size distribution. The focus in this paper is on the homogeneous regime. Often the so called equivalent liquid model (ELM) is applied, however many researchers found hydraulic gradients smaller than predicted with the ELM, but larger that the hydraulic gradient of liquid. Talmon (2011, 2013) derived a fundamental equation (method) proving that the hydraulic gradient can be smaller than predicted by the ELM, based on the assumption of a particle free viscous sub-layer. He used a 2D velocity distribution without a concentration distribution. In this paper 5 methods are described (and derived) to determine the hydraulic gradient in homogeneous flow, of which the last method is based on pipe flow with a concentration distribution. It appears that the use of von Driest (Schlichting, 1968) damping, if present, dominates the results, however applying a concentration distribution may neutralise this. The final equation contains both the damping and a concentration distribution giving the possibility to calibrate the constant in the equation with experimental data. The final equation is flexible and gives a good match with experimental results in vertical and horizontal pipelines for a value of ACv = 1.3. Data of horizontal experiments Dp = 0.05-0.30 m, d = 0.04 mm, vertical experiments Dp = 0.026 m, d = 0.125, 0.345, 0.560, and 0.750 mm.