Direct interpolation of daily runoff observations to ungauged sites is an alternative to hydrological model regionalisation. Such estimation is particularly important in small headwater basins characterized by sparse hydrological and climate observations, but often large spatial variability. The main objective of this study is to evaluate predictive accuracy of top-kriging interpolation driven by different number of stations (i.e. station densities) in an input dataset. The idea is to interpolate daily runoff for different station densities in Austria and to evaluate the minimum number of stations needed for accurate runoff predictions. Top-kriging efficiency is tested for ten different random samples in ten different stations densities. The predictive accuracy is evaluated by ordinary cross-validation and full-sample crossvalidations. The methodology is tested by using 555 gauges with daily observations in the period 1987-1997. The results of the cross-validation indicate that, in Austria, top-kriging interpolation is superior to hydrological model regionalisation if station density exceeds approximately 2 stations per 1000 km2 (175 stations in Austria). The average median of Nash-Sutcliffe cross-validation efficiency is larger than 0.7 for densities above 2.4 stations/1000 km2 . For such densities, the variability of runoff efficiency is very small over ten random samples. Lower runoff efficiency is found for low station densities (less than 1 station/1000 km2 ) and in some smaller headwater basins.
The role of stony soils in runoff response of mountain catchments is rarely studied. We have compared simulated response of stony soils with measured catchment runoff for events caused by rains of small and high intensities in the mountain catchment of the Jalovecký Creek, Slovakia. The soil water response was simulated for three sites with stoniness 10–65% using the Hydrus-2D single porosity model. Soil hydraulic parameters employed in the modelling, i. e. the saturated hydraulic conductivity and parameters of the soil water retention curves, were obtained by two approaches, namely by the Representative Elementary Volume approach (REVa) and by the inverse modelling with Hydrus-1D model (IMa). The soil water outflow hydrographs simulated by Hydrus-2D were compared to catchment runoff hydrographs by analysing their skewness and peak times. Measured catchment runoff hydrographs were similar to simulated soil water outflow hydrographs for about a half of rainfall events. Interestingly, most of them were caused by rainfalls with small intensity (below 2.5 mm/10 min). The REV approach to derive soil hydraulic parameters for soil water outflow modelling provided more realistic shapes of soil water outflow hydrographs and peak times than the IMa approach.
In this paper, I use Wittgenstein’s private language argument for reflecting on some folk-linguistic misconceptions. In Section 1, I show that elements of the private language semantics inform common ways of looking at some situations referred to as ''misunderstandings''. I suggest that it would be appropriate to conceive of the alleged misunderstandings as practical attitudes of mistreatment. This suggestion is explored in Section 2, which is devoted to a commonly assumed prominent example of the problem: the so-called inter-gender misunderstanding. It is believed that men and women use language in systematically different ways, as a result of which they do not understand each other properly, because they miss what their interlocutors ''mean''. The conceptual apparatus of mentalist semantics presumed here is abused in order to advocate morally reprehensible actions against women. In Section 3, I suggest that the Wittgensteinian accounts of language and mind offer arguments for denying private conceptions of understanding on the grounds of both philosophy of language and ethics., V tomto příspěvku používám argument Wittgensteinova soukromého jazyka, který reflektuje některé lidově-lingvistické mylné představy. V části 1 ukazuji, že prvky sémantiky soukromého jazyka informují o běžných způsobech, jak se podívat na některé situace označované jako ''nedorozumění''. Navrhuji, aby bylo možné považovat údajné nedorozumění za praktické postoje ohledně špatného zacházení. Tento návrh je zkoumán v části 2, která se věnuje běžně předpokládanému příkladnému problému: tzv. Nedorozumění mezi pohlavími. Předpokládá se, že muži a ženy používají jazyk systematicky různými způsoby, v důsledku čehož se správně nerozpoznávají, protože jim chybí to, co jejich partneři ''znamenají''. Konceptuální aparát mentalizované sémantiky, který se zde předpokládá, je zneužíván, aby obhajoval morálně odsouzené činy proti ženám. V sekci 3 navrhuji, aby Wittgensteinovské popisy jazyka a mysli nabízely argumenty pro popření soukromých koncepcí porozumění na základě filozofie jazyka a etiky., and Ondřej Beran
We examine the feasibility and added value of upscaling point data of soil moisture from a small- to a mesoscale catchment for the purpose of single-event flood prediction. We test the hypothesis that in a given catchment, the present soil moisture status is a key factor governing peak discharge, flow volume and flood duration. Multiple regression analyses of rainfall, pre-event discharge, single point soil moisture profiles from representative locations and peak discharge, discharge duration, discharge volume are discussed. The soil moisture profiles are selected along a convergent slope connected to the groundwater in flood plain within the small-scale catchment Husten (2.6 km²), which is a headwater catchment of the larger Hüppcherhammer catchment (47.2 km², Germany). Results show that the number of explanatory variables in the regression models is higher in summer (up to 8 variables) than in winter (up to 3 variables) and higher in the meso-scale catchment than in the small-scale catchment (up to 2 variables). Soil moisture data from selected key locations in the small catchment improves the quality of regression models established for the meso-scale catchment. For the different target variables peak discharge, discharge duration and discharge volume the adding of the soil moisture from the flood plain and the lower slope as explanatory variable improves the quality of the regression model by 15%, 20% and 10%, respectively, especially during the summer season. In the winter season the improvement is smaller (up to 6%) and the regression models mainly include rainfall characteristics as explanatory variables. The appearance of the soil moisture variables in the stepwise regression indicates their varying importance, depending on which characteristics of the discharge are focused on. Thus, we conclude that point data for soil moisture in functional landscape elements describe the catchments’ initial conditions very well and may yield valuable information for flood prediction and warning systems.
The characteristic asymmetry in ascribing intentionality, known as the Knobe effect, is widely thought to result from the moral evaluation of the side effect. Existing research has focused mostly on elucidating the ordinary meaning of the notion of intentionality, while less effort has been devoted to the moral conditions associated with the analyzed scenarios. The current analysis of the moral prop-erties of the main and side effects, as well as of the moral evaluations of the relationship between them, sheds new light on the influence of moral considerations on the attribution of intentionality in the Knobe effect. The moral evaluation of the relationship between the main and side effects is significant in that under certain circumstances it cancels asymmetry in intentionality ascription.
The decline in groundwater levels is a cause of concern in many regions of the world, including the Sand Ridge of Hungary. The causes of the regional depletion range from rising air temperatures, changes in precipitation, domestic and agricultural groundwater use and past amelioration and recent afforestation, including the effects of drilling for crude oil exploration. The relations between the decline, the soil water regime and groundwater recharge under existing aged forests remained unclear thus far. Based on our monitoring of groundwater and soil moisture we aim to clarify this interplay in a new experimental site on the hilltop of the Sand Ridge. We compared three land-uses: a 41-year-old black locust (Robinia Pseudoacacia) offshoot forest, an 83-year-old first generation black pine (Pinus nigra) forest, and a grassland control site. The observed differences in the soil moisture profiles and dynamics were connected to the use of water by the given type of vegetation. We indicated a connection between the disruption of the groundwater recharge and the loss of contact of the rooting system of the forests with the deepening of the unconfined aquifer. Even if the aged forests could locally contribute to the decline, we conclude that the decline at the hilltop site that may be more strongly driven by other regional factors.
The aim of the study was to evaluate the climate and geographic factors controlling the hydrological drought of the rivers located in the Upper Vistula catchment in the Polish Carpathians. Drought was identified based on the daily flow (based on water stage measered once a day at 6 UTC) series dating from between 1975 and 2019 at 49 gauging cross-sections. Four physico-geographical regions were identified in the Polish Carpathians and spatial variabilities of the basic drought characteristics were developed within these regions. Such spatial distributions were treated as maps indicating drought hazard areas in the region. In addition, an analysis was undertaken to study the seasonality of the start and end times of the drought (all in the multi-annual period), the longest duration of droughts, the droughts of the highest volume in multi-annual period, as well as the number of drought days. Multi-annual variability of the number of drought days was also analysed. The results suggest that droughts in the Polish Carpathians are events characteristic of summer and autumn, whereas in the Tatra Mountains and the Podhale region - of autumn and winter. The greatest hazard of a prolonged and highvolume drought occurs in the Podhale region and the Tatra Mountains, while the lowest hazard is observed in the Bieszczady Mountains and the eastern part of the studied area.
The application of Brilliant Blue FCF tracer enables to identify flow types in multi-domain porous systems of soils via analyses of morphologic parameters of stained objects occurring in dye pattern profiles, as they represent the footprint of flow processes which occurred in soil during both the infiltration and the redistribution of dye solution. We analysed the vertical dye pattern profiles exposed for different time lengths, and revealed temporal evolution of dye solution redistribution leading to changes in flow types. The field experiment was performed with the Brilliant Blue tracer (the 10 g l–1 concentration) applied on 1m x 1m surface of the Dystric Cambisol. The top litter horizon had been removed before 100 l of the tracer was applied. Four vertical profiles were excavated on the experimental plot (always 20 cm apart) at different times after the irrigation had been finished: 2 hours (CUT 2), 24 hours (CUT 24), 27 hours (CUT 27) and 504 hours (CUT 504). The analyses of the dyed patterns profiles showed the spatio-temporal changes in the dye coverage, surface area density, average BB concentration, and stained path width, which allowed us to specify three stages of dye solution redistribution history: (i) a stage of preferential macropore flow, (ii) a stage of strong interaction between macropore-domain and soil matrix leading to the generation of heterogeneous matrix flow and fingering flow types, and (iii) a final stage of dye redistribution within the soil body connected with leaching of BB caused by meteoric water. With increasing time, the macropore flow types convert to mostly matrix-dominated FTs in the upper part of the soil profile. These results were supported by soil hydrological modelling, which implied that more than 70% of the soil moisture profiles variability among CUT 2–CUT 504 could be explained by the time factor.
Theoretical assumptions and practical approaches to temporal and spatial distribution of rainfall intensity in urban watersheds is still a research topic. The speed and direction of movement of rainfall events above urban watersheds are principal hydrologic parameters, which influence a rainfall-runoff process. This contribution reviews three methods, namely the Inverse Distance-Weighted Method (IDWM), Time Shift Method (TSM) and newly developed Geometrical Method (GM). The principal assumption of all three methods is based on the calculation of fictitious rainfall intensity at a particular location as weighted interpolation among the nearest real rain gauge stations. Any rainfall event above the urban watershed can be classified either as moving or non-moving storm. While the Inverse Distance-Weighted Method can be used for non-moving storms, the other two methods can describe the parameters of moving storms. Model RainGen, which was originally developed to create a basic source of rainfall data for rainfallrunoff mathematical models in urban watersheds, may be used not only for visualization but as well as for comparing of the measured and computed results. Case study for moving storms in Prague shows the results of TSM and GM methods. and Teoretické předpoklady a praktické přístupy k řešení časového a plošného rozložení srážek v urbanizovaných povodích jsou stále předmětem výzkumu. Rychlost a směr pohybu dešťových událostí nad urbanizovanými povodími představují hlavní hydrologické veličiny, které ovlivňují srážko-odtokový proces. Příspěvek se zabývá třemi metodami výpočtu, a to inverzní váhovou metodou, metodou časového posunu a nově navrženou geometrickou metodou. Hlavní předpoklad u všech tří metod je ve zvoleném místě založen na výpočtu fiktivní intenzity deště a to na základě interpolace s využitím váhové funkce mezi nejbližšími srážkoměrnými stanicemi. Každou srážkovou událost nad urbanizovaným povodím lze klasifikovat buď jako pohyblivou, nebo nepohyblivou. Zatímco inverzní váhová metoda může být použita pro nepohyblivé srážkové události, metodu časového posunu a geometrickou metodu lze doporučit pro pohyblivé srážkové události. Model RainGen, který byl původně vytvořen k tvorbě základních srážkových dat pro potřeby matematických modelů povrchového odtoku z urbanizovaných povodí, může být využit nejen k vizualizaci výsledků, ale rovněž k jejich vzájemnému porovnávání. Případová studie pohyblivých srážkových událostí v Praze ukazuje porovnání výsledků metody časového posunu a geometrické metody.
According to possibilism, or non-actualism, fictional characters are possible individuals. Possibilist accounts of fiction do not only assign the intuitively correct truth-conditions to sentences in a fiction, but has the potential to provide powerful explanatory models for a wide range of phenomena associated with fiction (though these two aspects of possibilism are, I argue, crucially distinct). Apart from the classic defense by David Lewis the idea of modeling fiction in terms of possible worlds have been widely criticized. In this article, I provide a defense of a possibilist account against some lines of criticism. To do so, I assume that names for fictional characters are directly referential and a possible-worlds model that accommodates transworld identity. On this background, I argue, it is possible to construct an elegant model of fictional discourse using familiar models of information exchange in ordinary discourse, and I sketch how this model can be used to i) make a natural distinction between fictional and counterfactual discourse, ii) account for creativity, and iii) sustain a natural definition of truth-in-fiction that avoids certain familiar objections to possibilism. Though I set aside questions about the metaphysical commitments of a possible-world interpretation here, there is accordingly reason to think that the battle over possibilist treatments of fiction will have to be fought over metaphysical foundations rather than technical shortcomings., Podle možnosti, nebo non-realismus, smyšlené znaky jsou možné jednotlivci. Potenciální účty beletrie nejenže přiřazují intuitivně správné pravdivostní podmínky věcem ve fikci, ale mají potenciál poskytovat silné vysvětlující modely pro širokou škálu jevů spojených s fikcí (ačkoli tyto dva aspekty possibilismu jsou, jak tvrdí, zásadně odlišné). Kromě klasické obrany Davida Lewise byla myšlenka modelování beletrie z hlediska možných světů široce kritizována. V tomto článku poskytuji obhajobu možného účtu proti některým kritikám. Abych tak učinil, předpokládám, že jména pro smyšlené postavy jsou přímo referenční a možný světový model, který přizpůsobuje transworld identitu. Na tomto pozadí argumentuji, je možné vytvořit elegantní model fiktivního diskursu za použití známých modelů výměny informací v běžném diskursu a načrtám, jak lze tento model využít k tomu, aby i) rozlišoval mezi fiktivním a protikladným diskurzem, ii) odpovídal za kreativitu a iii) udržovat přirozenou definici fikce pravdy, která se vyhýbá některým známým námitkám proti možnosti., Ačkoli jsem odložil otázky týkající se metafyzických závazků interpretace možného světa, je proto důvod domnívat se, že bitva o možnostech léčby beletrie se bude muset bojovat spíše na metafyzických základech než na technických nedostatcích. a načrtám, jak lze tento model využít k tomu, aby i) rozlišoval mezi fiktivním a kontrafaktuálním diskurzem, ii) odpovídal za kreativitu a iii) udržoval přirozenou definici pravdy-fiction, která se vyhýbá některým známým námitkám proti možnosti. Ačkoli jsem odložil otázky týkající se metafyzických závazků interpretace možného světa, je proto důvod domnívat se, že bitva o možnostech léčby beletrie se bude muset bojovat spíše na metafyzických základech než na technických nedostatcích. a načrtám, jak lze tento model využít k tomu, aby i) rozlišoval mezi fiktivním a kontrafaktuálním diskurzem, ii) odpovídal za kreativitu a iii) udržoval přirozenou definici pravdy-fiction, která se vyhýbá některým známým námitkám proti možnosti. Ačkoli jsem odložil otázky týkající se metafyzických závazků interpretace možného světa, je proto důvod domnívat se, že bitva o možnostech léčby beletrie se bude muset bojovat spíše na metafyzických základech než na technických nedostatcích., and Fredrik Haraldsen