Lukowski has argued that, if it is the case that there are actual non-monotonic inferences, they are very hard to find. In this paper, a representative kind of inference that is often considered to be non-monotonic is addressed. Likewise, certain arguments provided by Lukowski to demonstrate that that type of inference is not really non-monotonic are reviewed too. Finally, I propose an explanation of why, despite the fact that the arguments given by him seem to be convincing, it is usually thought that those inferences are not monotonic. In this way, I also try to account for the role that disjunction has in this issue and argue in favor of the idea that we can continue to suppose that the human mind does not ignore the essential requirements of classical logic. and Lukowski argumentoval, že pokud je tomu tak, že existují skutečné nemontotonické závěry, je velmi těžké je najít. V tomto příspěvku je řešen typický závěr, který je často považován za nemontonický. Stejně tak některé argumenty, které poskytl Lukowski k prokázání toho, že tento typ závěru není skutečně nemonotonický, jsou také přezkoumány. Nakonec navrhuji vysvětlení toho, proč navzdory skutečnosti, že jeho argumenty se zdají být přesvědčivé, je obvykle myšleno, že tyto závěry nejsou monotonické. Tímto způsobem se také snažím vysvětlit úlohu, kterou má disjunkce v této otázce, a argumentovat ve prospěch myšlenky, že můžeme i nadále předpokládat, že lidská mysl ignoruje základní požadavky klasické logiky.
An understanding of preferential flow in the vadose zone is crucial for the prediction of the fate of pollutants.
Infiltration basins, developed to mitigate the adverse effects of impervious surfaces in urban areas, are established above
strongly heterogeneous and highly permeable deposits and thus are prone to preferential flow and enhanced pollutant
transport. This study numerically investigates the establishment of preferential flow in an infiltration basin in the Lyon
suburbs (France) established over a highly heterogeneous glaciofluvial deposit covering much of the Lyon region. An investigation
of the soil transect (13.5 m long and 2.5 m deep) provided full characterization of lithology and hydraulic
properties of present lithofacies. Numerical modeling with the HYDRUS-2D model of water flow in the transect was
used to identify the effects of individual lithofacies that constitute the deposit. Multiple scenarios that considered different
levels of heterogeneity were evaluated. Preferential flow was studied for several values of infiltration rates applied
after a long dry period. The numerical study shows that the high contrast in hydraulic properties of different lithofacies
triggers the establishment of preferential flow (capillary barriers and funneled flow). Preferential flow develops mainly
for low water fluxes imposed at the surface. The role of individual lithofacies in triggering preferential flow depends on
their shapes (layering versus inclusions) and their sizes. While lenses and inclusions produce preferential flow pathways,
the presence of the surface layer has no effect on the development of preferential flow and it only affects the effective
hydraulic conductivity of the heterogeneous transect.
In this paper, I argue that the notion of ''best explanation'', as it appears in the Inference to the Best Explanation (IBE), can be defined in terms of explanatory power (EP) (i.e. the best explanation among a set of possible explanations is the one having the highest EP), if we employ a probabilistic measure of EP, which takes into account both the likelihoods and the prior probabilities of the compared explanatory hypotheses. Although the association between the EP of a hypothesis and its likelihood is largely uncontroversial, most of those working on EP do not see an association between EP and the prior probability of an explanatory hypothesis. I provide three examples (two toy examples and one from real scientific practice), in order to show that the role of priors in decisions about the best explanatory hypothesis deserves a serious consideration. I also show that such an explication of ''best explanation'' allows us to compare IBE and Bayesian confirmation theory (BCT) in terms of the probabilities they assign to two competing hypotheses, and thus to elicit the conditions under which both IBE and BCT lead to the same conclusion and are in this sense compatible., V tomto příspěvku tvrdím, že pojem ,,nejlepší vysvětlení'', jak je uveden v Úmluvě k nejlepšímu vysvětlení (IBE), lze definovat z hlediska vysvětlující síly (EP) (tj. Nejlepší vysvětlení mezi množstvím možných vysvětlení je ta, která má nejvyšší EP), pokud použijeme pravděpodobnostní měřítko EP, které bere v úvahu jak pravděpodobnosti, tak i předchozí pravděpodobnosti porovnávaných vysvětlujících hypotéz. Ačkoli asociace mezi EP hypotézy a její pravděpodobností je do značné míry nekontroverzní, většina z těch, kteří pracují na EP, nevidí asociaci mezi EP a předchozí pravděpodobností vysvětlující hypotézy. Uvádím tři příklady (dvě příklady hraček a jednu ze skutečné vědecké praxe), aby bylo zřejmé, že role předchůdců v rozhodování o nejlepší vysvětlující hypotéze si zaslouží seriózní zvážení. Rovněž dokazuji, že takové vysvětlení ,,nejlepšího vysvětlení'' nám umožňuje porovnat IBE a Bayesovskou potvrzovací teorii (BCT) z hlediska pravděpodobností, které přiřazují dvěma konkurenčním hypotézám, a tak vyvolat podmínky, za kterých IBE i BCT vedou k stejný závěr a jsou v tomto smyslu slučitelné., and Anton Donchev
Subtropical regions have clay-rich, weathered soils, and long dry periods followed by intense rainfall that produces large fluctuations in soil water content (SWC) and hydrological behavior. This complicates predictions of spatiotemporal dynamics, as datasets are typically collected at too coarse resolution and observations often represent a duration that is too short to capture temporal stability. The aim of the present study was to gain further insights into the role of temporal sampling scale on the observed temporal stability features of SWC order to aid the design of optimal SWC sampling strategies. This focused on both sampling frequency and total monitoring duration, as previous analyses have not considered both of these sampling aspects simultaneously. We collected relatively high resolution data of SWC (fortnightly over 3.5 years) for various soil depths and under contrasting crops (peanuts and citrus) at the red soil region of southeast China. The dataset was split into a three-year training period and a six-month evaluation period. Altogether 13 sampling frequencies (intervals ranging from 15 to 240 days) and eight monitoring duration periods (between three and 36 months) were derived from the training period to identify temporal stability features and the most time stable location (MTSL). The prediction accuracies of these MTSLs were tested using the independent evaluation data. Results showed that vegetation type did affect the spatio-temporal patterns of SWC, whereby the citrus site exhibited a stronger temporal variation and weaker temporal stability than the peanut site. However, the effects of both sampling frequency and observation duration were more pronounced, irrespective of the role of vegetation type or soil depth. With increasing sampling interval or decreasing monitoring duration, temporal stability of SWC was generally overestimated; by less than 10% when sampling interval increased from every 15 to 240 days and by up to 40% with duration decreasing from 36 to 3 months. Our results suggest that sampling strategies and trade-offs between sampling interval and duration should focus on capturing the main variability in hydro-climatological conditions. For subtropical conditions, we found that sampling once every 45 days over 24 months to be the minimum sampling strategy to ensure errors in SWC temporal stability of less than 10%.
The role of stony soils in runoff response of mountain catchments is rarely studied. We have compared simulated response of stony soils with measured catchment runoff for events caused by rains of small and high intensities in the mountain catchment of the Jalovecký Creek, Slovakia. The soil water response was simulated for three sites with stoniness 10–65% using the Hydrus-2D single porosity model. Soil hydraulic parameters employed in the modelling, i. e. the saturated hydraulic conductivity and parameters of the soil water retention curves, were obtained by two approaches, namely by the Representative Elementary Volume approach (REVa) and by the inverse modelling with Hydrus-1D model (IMa). The soil water outflow hydrographs simulated by Hydrus-2D were compared to catchment runoff hydrographs by analysing their skewness and peak times. Measured catchment runoff hydrographs were similar to simulated soil water outflow hydrographs for about a half of rainfall events. Interestingly, most of them were caused by rainfalls with small intensity (below 2.5 mm/10 min). The REV approach to derive soil hydraulic parameters for soil water outflow modelling provided more realistic shapes of soil water outflow hydrographs and peak times than the IMa approach.
In this paper, I use Wittgenstein’s private language argument for reflecting on some folk-linguistic misconceptions. In Section 1, I show that elements of the private language semantics inform common ways of looking at some situations referred to as ''misunderstandings''. I suggest that it would be appropriate to conceive of the alleged misunderstandings as practical attitudes of mistreatment. This suggestion is explored in Section 2, which is devoted to a commonly assumed prominent example of the problem: the so-called inter-gender misunderstanding. It is believed that men and women use language in systematically different ways, as a result of which they do not understand each other properly, because they miss what their interlocutors ''mean''. The conceptual apparatus of mentalist semantics presumed here is abused in order to advocate morally reprehensible actions against women. In Section 3, I suggest that the Wittgensteinian accounts of language and mind offer arguments for denying private conceptions of understanding on the grounds of both philosophy of language and ethics., V tomto příspěvku používám argument Wittgensteinova soukromého jazyka, který reflektuje některé lidově-lingvistické mylné představy. V části 1 ukazuji, že prvky sémantiky soukromého jazyka informují o běžných způsobech, jak se podívat na některé situace označované jako ''nedorozumění''. Navrhuji, aby bylo možné považovat údajné nedorozumění za praktické postoje ohledně špatného zacházení. Tento návrh je zkoumán v části 2, která se věnuje běžně předpokládanému příkladnému problému: tzv. Nedorozumění mezi pohlavími. Předpokládá se, že muži a ženy používají jazyk systematicky různými způsoby, v důsledku čehož se správně nerozpoznávají, protože jim chybí to, co jejich partneři ''znamenají''. Konceptuální aparát mentalizované sémantiky, který se zde předpokládá, je zneužíván, aby obhajoval morálně odsouzené činy proti ženám. V sekci 3 navrhuji, aby Wittgensteinovské popisy jazyka a mysli nabízely argumenty pro popření soukromých koncepcí porozumění na základě filozofie jazyka a etiky., and Ondřej Beran
The characteristic asymmetry in ascribing intentionality, known as the Knobe effect, is widely thought to result from the moral evaluation of the side effect. Existing research has focused mostly on elucidating the ordinary meaning of the notion of intentionality, while less effort has been devoted to the moral conditions associated with the analyzed scenarios. The current analysis of the moral prop-erties of the main and side effects, as well as of the moral evaluations of the relationship between them, sheds new light on the influence of moral considerations on the attribution of intentionality in the Knobe effect. The moral evaluation of the relationship between the main and side effects is significant in that under certain circumstances it cancels asymmetry in intentionality ascription.
The application of Brilliant Blue FCF tracer enables to identify flow types in multi-domain porous systems of soils via analyses of morphologic parameters of stained objects occurring in dye pattern profiles, as they represent the footprint of flow processes which occurred in soil during both the infiltration and the redistribution of dye solution. We analysed the vertical dye pattern profiles exposed for different time lengths, and revealed temporal evolution of dye solution redistribution leading to changes in flow types. The field experiment was performed with the Brilliant Blue tracer (the 10 g l–1 concentration) applied on 1m x 1m surface of the Dystric Cambisol. The top litter horizon had been removed before 100 l of the tracer was applied. Four vertical profiles were excavated on the experimental plot (always 20 cm apart) at different times after the irrigation had been finished: 2 hours (CUT 2), 24 hours (CUT 24), 27 hours (CUT 27) and 504 hours (CUT 504). The analyses of the dyed patterns profiles showed the spatio-temporal changes in the dye coverage, surface area density, average BB concentration, and stained path width, which allowed us to specify three stages of dye solution redistribution history: (i) a stage of preferential macropore flow, (ii) a stage of strong interaction between macropore-domain and soil matrix leading to the generation of heterogeneous matrix flow and fingering flow types, and (iii) a final stage of dye redistribution within the soil body connected with leaching of BB caused by meteoric water. With increasing time, the macropore flow types convert to mostly matrix-dominated FTs in the upper part of the soil profile. These results were supported by soil hydrological modelling, which implied that more than 70% of the soil moisture profiles variability among CUT 2–CUT 504 could be explained by the time factor.
According to possibilism, or non-actualism, fictional characters are possible individuals. Possibilist accounts of fiction do not only assign the intuitively correct truth-conditions to sentences in a fiction, but has the potential to provide powerful explanatory models for a wide range of phenomena associated with fiction (though these two aspects of possibilism are, I argue, crucially distinct). Apart from the classic defense by David Lewis the idea of modeling fiction in terms of possible worlds have been widely criticized. In this article, I provide a defense of a possibilist account against some lines of criticism. To do so, I assume that names for fictional characters are directly referential and a possible-worlds model that accommodates transworld identity. On this background, I argue, it is possible to construct an elegant model of fictional discourse using familiar models of information exchange in ordinary discourse, and I sketch how this model can be used to i) make a natural distinction between fictional and counterfactual discourse, ii) account for creativity, and iii) sustain a natural definition of truth-in-fiction that avoids certain familiar objections to possibilism. Though I set aside questions about the metaphysical commitments of a possible-world interpretation here, there is accordingly reason to think that the battle over possibilist treatments of fiction will have to be fought over metaphysical foundations rather than technical shortcomings., Podle možnosti, nebo non-realismus, smyšlené znaky jsou možné jednotlivci. Potenciální účty beletrie nejenže přiřazují intuitivně správné pravdivostní podmínky věcem ve fikci, ale mají potenciál poskytovat silné vysvětlující modely pro širokou škálu jevů spojených s fikcí (ačkoli tyto dva aspekty possibilismu jsou, jak tvrdí, zásadně odlišné). Kromě klasické obrany Davida Lewise byla myšlenka modelování beletrie z hlediska možných světů široce kritizována. V tomto článku poskytuji obhajobu možného účtu proti některým kritikám. Abych tak učinil, předpokládám, že jména pro smyšlené postavy jsou přímo referenční a možný světový model, který přizpůsobuje transworld identitu. Na tomto pozadí argumentuji, je možné vytvořit elegantní model fiktivního diskursu za použití známých modelů výměny informací v běžném diskursu a načrtám, jak lze tento model využít k tomu, aby i) rozlišoval mezi fiktivním a protikladným diskurzem, ii) odpovídal za kreativitu a iii) udržovat přirozenou definici fikce pravdy, která se vyhýbá některým známým námitkám proti možnosti., Ačkoli jsem odložil otázky týkající se metafyzických závazků interpretace možného světa, je proto důvod domnívat se, že bitva o možnostech léčby beletrie se bude muset bojovat spíše na metafyzických základech než na technických nedostatcích. a načrtám, jak lze tento model využít k tomu, aby i) rozlišoval mezi fiktivním a kontrafaktuálním diskurzem, ii) odpovídal za kreativitu a iii) udržoval přirozenou definici pravdy-fiction, která se vyhýbá některým známým námitkám proti možnosti. Ačkoli jsem odložil otázky týkající se metafyzických závazků interpretace možného světa, je proto důvod domnívat se, že bitva o možnostech léčby beletrie se bude muset bojovat spíše na metafyzických základech než na technických nedostatcích. a načrtám, jak lze tento model využít k tomu, aby i) rozlišoval mezi fiktivním a kontrafaktuálním diskurzem, ii) odpovídal za kreativitu a iii) udržoval přirozenou definici pravdy-fiction, která se vyhýbá některým známým námitkám proti možnosti. Ačkoli jsem odložil otázky týkající se metafyzických závazků interpretace možného světa, je proto důvod domnívat se, že bitva o možnostech léčby beletrie se bude muset bojovat spíše na metafyzických základech než na technických nedostatcích., and Fredrik Haraldsen
The main purpose of the research was to determine the conditions affecting ice phenomena, including the three-phase cycle of ice: expansion, retention and decay of the ice cover on selected rivers of the Baltic coastal zone in the Northern Poland (Przymorze region). The analysis has been elaborated for the years 1951–2010 against the backdrop of currently occurring climatic changes, with particular emphasis on the development and phase variability of the NAO. The article presents the impact of the variability in atmospheric circulation which has manifested in an increase in air temperature, over the last 20 years, on thermal conditions during winter periods in the South Baltic Coastal Strip. The increase in air temperature has contributed to an increase in the temperature of river waters, thus leading to a shortening of the duration of ice phenomena on rivers in the Przymorze region. The article also brings to light an increased occurrence of winter seasons classified as cool, and a disruption in the occurrence of periods classified as normal over the last 30 observed years. The research has demonstrated a significant dependence between the seasonal change in air temperature and the variability of thermal conditions of water, which has a direct impact on the variability of the icing cycle of rivers in the Przymorze region. The authors also show that the variability in forms of ice phenomena for individual river sections is determined by the local factors, i.e. anthropogenic activity, impact of urbanized areas or inflow of pollutants.