In the current discussions about emergent entities there is a new topic in the problem of diachronic and synchronic conception of emergence. The diachronic conception emphasizes the emergence of new phenomena over time, the synchronic conception coexistence of new ''high-level'' objects or properties of existing objects or properties on a lower level. There is a general belief that these two concepts are conceptually different and yet they cannot find a unifying framework that would allow unifying them in a more general sense. I believe and I try to show that both concepts diverge and it is possible to create a unifying framework for them., V současných diskusích o vznikajících subjektech je nové téma v problematice diachronní a synchronické koncepce vzniku. Diachronické pojetí zdůrazňuje vznik nových jevů v čase, synchronické pojetí koexistence nových ,,objektů na vysoké úrovni'' nebo vlastností existujících objektů nebo vlastností na nižší úrovni. Existuje všeobecná víra, že tyto dva koncepty jsou koncepčně odlišné a přesto nemohou najít sjednocující rámec, který by je umožnil sjednotit je v obecnějším smyslu. Věřím a snažím se ukázat, že oba koncepty se liší a je možné pro ně vytvořit sjednocující rámec., and Vladimír Havlík
In a recultivation area located in Brandenburg, Germany, five types of biocrusts (initial BSC1, developed BSC2 and BSC3, mosses, lichens) and non-crusted mineral substrate were sampled on tertiary sand deposited in 1985- 1986 to investigate hydrologic interactions between crust patches. Crust biomass was lowest in the non-crusted substrate, increased to the initial BSC1 and peaked in the developed BSC2, BSC3, the lichens and the mosses. Water infiltration was highest on the substrate, and decreased to BSC2, BSC1 and BSC3. Non-metric multidimensional scaling revealed that the lichens and BSC3 were associated with water soluble nutrients and with pyrite weathering products, thus representing a high nutrient low hydraulic feedback mode. The mosses and BSC2 represented a low nutrient high hydraulic feedback mode. These feedback mechanisms were considered as synergic, consisting of run-off generating (low hydraulic) and run-on receiving (high hydraulic) BSC patches. Three scenarios for BSC succession were proposed. (1) Initial BSCs sealed the surface until they reached a successional stage (represented by BSC1) from which the development into either of the feedback modes was triggered, (2) initial heterogeneities of the mineral substrate controlled the development of the feedback mode, and (3) complex interactions between lichens and mosses occurred at later stages of system development.
The aim of the paper is to analyse a possible teleconnection of AO (Artic Oscillation), SO (Southern Oscillation), PDO (Pacific Decade Oscillation), NAO (North Atlantic Oscillation) and QBO (Quasi Biennial Oscillation) phenomena with long-term streamflow fluctuation in Hron River basin (Central Slovakia). The spectral analysis shows that for the series of AO, NAO, SO, and PDO indexes we can identify the ca 2.4-; 3.6-; 7.8-; 14-; 21-;30- and 36-yr cycles. The coincident cycles were found in the monthly discharge time series from the Hron basin (period 1931-2000) using combined periodogram method. As these periods were found in almost all discharge series analysed within very different geographical zones, it can be considered as the general regularity on the earth. The regularity is related to general oceanic and atmospheric circulation, part of which are also the SO, AO, PDO and NAO phenomena. and Cieľom predloženej štúdie je analýza možných telekonekcií Arktickej oscilácie (AO), Južnej oscilácie (SO), Tichomorskej dekádnej oscilácie (PDO), Severoatlantickej oscilácie (NAO) a Kvázi dvojročnej oscilácie (QBO) s viacročnými cyklami priemerných ročných prietokov v povodí rieky Hron (stredné Slovensko). Spektrálnou analýzou časových radov AO, NAO, SO, a PDO indexov boli nájdené nasledujúce viacročné cykly kolísania indexov: ca 2,4; 3,6; 7,8; 14; 21; 30 a 36 rokov. Metódou kombinovaného periodogramu boli nájdené zhodné cykly kolísania viacročných suchých a mokrých období i v mesačných prietokových radoch z povodia Hrona (1930-2000). Keďže tieto periódy boli nájdené vo všetkých prietokových radoch z rôznych geografických zón, môžu byť považované za všeobecný jav na Zemi. Toto pravidelné opakovanie mokrých a suchých období súvisí so všeobecnou cirkuláciou oceánov a atmosféry, súčasťou ktorých sú i SO, AO, PDO, NAO a QBO javy.
The aim of this study was to determine the potential development of water sorptivity of soil aggregates by heating. Soil aggregates were sampled from arable layer of 5 Polish soils: Haplic Luvisol 1 from Czesławice, Haplic Luvisol 2 from Wierzchucinek, Haplic Cambisol from Felin, Gleyic Mollic Cambisol from Chylice, and Haplic Phaeozem from Grabiec. Three aggregates of each soil type with minimum diameter between 4 and 10 mm were heated in the oven for at least 3 hours at temperatures 20, 100, 200, 250, and 360ºC. After each temperature treatment the soil aggregates were conditioned at the room temperature for 16 hours. Laboratory measurements of water sorptivity of soil aggregates were performed under a negative tension h0 = -2 cm using tension infiltrometer. It was found that the exposure to temperatures between 100 and 200°C tends to decrease water sorptivity of aggregates from all the studied soils but one (Haplic Luvisol 1), followed by about two- to four-fold increase in water sorptivity for exposure to temperatures of 250°C (in Haplic Luvisol 1, Haplic Luvisol 2, and Haplic Phaeozem) or 360°C (in Haplic Cambisol and Gleyic Mollic Cambisol).
Reduced soil tillage practices are claimed to improve soil health, fertility and productivity through improved soil structure and higher soil organic matter contents. This study compares soil structure stability of soil aggregates under three different tillage practices: conventional, reduced and no tillage. The erosive strength of soil aggregates has been determined using the abrasion technique with the soil aggregate erosion chambers (SAE). During abrasion soil aggregates have been separated into the exterior, transitional and interior regions. The forces needed to remove the material from the aggregate were calculated as erosive strength and compared with the tensile strength of the aggregates derived from crushing tests. The relationship between aggregate strength and other soil properties such as organic carbon and hydrophobic groups’ content has also been identified. The results show that erosive and tensile strength of soil aggregates is very low in topsoil under conventional and reduced tillage comparing with the subsoil horizons. Negative correlation was found between the content of organic carbon, hydrophobic compounds and erosive aggregate strength which suggests that the stabilising effect of soils organic carbon may be lost with drying. The positive relationship between the tensile strength and erosive strength for aggregates of 8–5 mm size suggests that the total strength of these aggregates is controlled by the sum of strength of all concentric layers.
This study introduces the possibility theory, the foundations of which were laid by Zadeh (1978), using the fuzzy sets theory, and it clarifies its basic concepts and principles. The study was aimed to verify methodological procedures of the possibility theory in current water management tasks. The case study examined possibilities of simultaneous occurrence of several causal factors of hydrological situations, and their impacts on water sources in changed climatic conditions. The second task was focused on the assessment of effects of climatic change on the storage function of the Šance reservoir in the Odra River catchment. In the end, problems open up for further research are outlined. and Studie uvádí do problematiky teorie možnosti, jejíž základy položil Zadeh (1978) s využitím teorie fuzzy množin, a objasňuje její základní pojmy a principy. Cílem studie bylo ověřit metodické postupy teorie možnosti na aktuálních vodohospodářských úlohách. V případové studii se zkoumaly možnosti současného nastání několika příčinných faktorů hydrologických situací a jejich dopady na vodní zdroje ve změněných klimatických podmínkách. Ve druhé úloze byly posuzovány dopady klimatické změny na zásobní funkci nádrže Šance v povodí Odry. V závěru se uvádějí problémy otevřené pro další výzkum.
Carnap’s analysis of the language of science had presupposed too close a connection between the semantics and testability. The core problem of the logical empiricist tradition was to show how to provide the interpretation of theoretical terms and hence the explanation of their application to observable entities by means of observation terms. It is argued that the utilization of a much more expressive semantic theory which identifies meanings with hyperintensional entities leads to a clarification of the competencies of semantics and methodology. It is claimed that the observability or unobservability of term’s referents does not determine the meaning of the term. Carnap’s reduction sentences are therefore conceived only as methodological devices for the determination of unobservables via the theory-presupposed observable aspects., Carnapova analýza jazyka vědy předpokládala příliš úzkou souvislost mezi sémantikou a testovatelností. Hlavním problémem logické empirické tradice bylo ukázat, jak poskytnout výklad teoretických pojmů a tím i vysvětlení jejich aplikace na pozorovatelné entity pomocí pozorovacích termínů. Tvrdí se, že využití mnohem výraznější sémantické teorie, která identifikuje význam s hyperintenzionálními entitami, vede k objasnění kompetencí sémantiky a metodiky. To je prohlašoval, že pozorovatelnost nebo unobservability of referents termínu nemá určovat význam termínu. Carnapovy redukční věty jsou proto koncipovány pouze jako metodologická zařízení pro určování nepozorovatelných aspektů prostřednictvím pozorovatelných aspektů předpokládaných teorií., and Lukáš Bielik
Following the Article 16 (7) of the Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy Commission shall submit proposals for environmental objectives applicable to the concentrations of the priority substances in surface water, sediments or biota. In the absence of agreement at Community level up to the deadline given by the directive Member States shall establish environmental objectives themselves. Within the framework of legislative preparation to this situation we have evaluated the relationships between particular parameters of surface water and total suspended solids contamination with heavy metals and with arsenic as one group of priority substances. Neither valid Decree No 82/1999 Coll. nor the amendment include such environmental objectives at present. and Podle čl. 16 (7) Směrnice 2000/60/ES Evropského parlamentu a Rady ustavující rámec pro činnost Společenství v oblasti vodní politiky má Komise předložit Evropskému parlamentu a Radě návrhy environmentálních standardů pro koncentrace prioritních látek v povrchových vodách, sedimentech a v biotě. V případě absence úmluvy na úrovni Společenství do termínu daného směrnicí musejí členské státy stanovit tyto environmentální standardy samy. V rámci legislativní přípravy na takovou eventualitu jsme proto hodnotili vztahy mezi jednotlivými parametry kontaminace vody a plavenin těžkými kovy a arsenem jako jednou skupinou prioritních látek. Platné Nař. vl. ČR č. 82/1999 Sb. ani připravovaná novela zatím environmentální standardy pro sedimenty (a tedy ani plaveniny) a biotu nezahrnují.
As formulated by Duncan Pritchard and John McDowell, epistemological disjunctivism is the claim that perceptual experience can provide the subject with epistemic justification that is reflectively accessible and externally grounded at the same time. Pritchard calls this thesis ‘the holy grail of epistemology’, since it reconciles two traditionally rival theories of justification, namely epistemic internalism and epistemic externalism. The main objection against epistemological disjunctivism thus understood is that it does not do justice to the well-known internalist intuitions expressed in The New Evil Demon and Brain-in-a-Vat scenarios. I defend epistemological disjunctivism from this objection by indicating that those who apply to such scenarios commit themselves to implausible views in the philosophy of mind. I conclude that epistemological disjunctivism accurately expresses the epistemological attitude of a non-reductive materialist regarding the body-mind problem., Jak formuloval Duncan Pritchard a John McDowell, epistemologický disjunktivismus je tvrzením, že vnímaná zkušenost může poskytnout subjektu epistemické ospravedlnění, které je zároveň reflexně přístupné a zároveň uzemněné. Pritchard tuto práci nazývá „svatým grálem epistemologie“, protože sbližuje dvě tradičně soupeřící teorie ospravedlnění, konkrétně epistemický internalizmus a epistemický externismus. Hlavní námitka proti takto pochopenému epistemologickému disjunktivismu je taková, že nečiní spravedlnost pro známé internacionalistické intuice vyjádřené ve scénářích New Evil Demon a Brain-in-a-Vat. Z této námitky hájím epistemologický disjunktivismus tím, že naznačuji, že ti, kteří se na takové scénáře vztahují, se zavázali k nepravděpodobným názorům ve filozofii mysli., and Paweł Zięba