Changes in fluorescence emission spectra (293 and 77 K) of phycobilisomes from Nostoc flagelUforme during dissociation in phosphate buffer of various molarity were studied. There were three bands in 77 K fluorescence emission spectra of partly dissociated phycobilisomes: F648, F666 and F686, characteristic of C-phycocyanin (C-PC), allophycocyanin (APC) and allophycocyanin-B (APC-B), respectively. In severely dissociated phycobilisomes, the F666 band was veiy weak, which indicated that linkage between C-PC and APC was severely dissociated, most of the energy trapped by C-PC could not be transferred to APC, but some of it could be transferred directly to APC-B. The phycobiliproteins in these phycobilisomes constitute an energy transfer chain: PEC^C;PC-»APC-»AP^-B. A new model of phycobilisome structure is suggested, in which some C-PC contact directly with APC and others contact with APC-B.
Otázku, jak dalece je gramatika utvářena svou funkcí, tedy tím, že lidem umožňuje užívat jazyk ke sdělování a při racionálním myšlení, lze zodpovědět, uvážíme-li, že autonomie syntaxe (právem předpokládaná formálním přístupem) nevylučuje vliv užívání jazyka na vlastnosti jeho gramatiky. Rozborem příkladů z problematiky slovosledu (včetně jeho funkcí daných aktuálním členěním) i strukturní ikoničnosti (aspoň částečné paralelnosti vztahů syntaktických a obsahových u kauzativ, u posesivity aj.) a tlaku relativní snadnosti syntaktické analýzy (rychlého porozumění vnímané větě) se ukazuje, že důsledky tohoto vlivu naprosto nejsou zanedbatelné. Během vývoje vznikají v jazycích nové konstrukce pod tlakem nových funkcí, postupně pak dochází к osamostatnění a zobecnění konstrukcí bez přímého vztahu к funkci. Takto stále znovu obnovovaná autonomie syntaxe tedy může mít funkční vysvětlení, podobně jako jiné vlastnosti gramatiky.
The truth of an utterance generally depends on what the words uttered mean and what is the current state of the world; but also on the context of the utterance. Within formal semantics this was first accounted for. by Kaplan, by means of explicating meanings as functions from contexts to intensions. Stainaker then brought the attention to the fact that utteraces not only ‘consume’ contexts but also ‘produce’ new ones; and that context is thus what mediates the interplay between subsequent utterances. In this paper we point out that context can be considered either from the viewpoint of the information it contains (which delimits what can be subsequently consistently claimed), or from the viewpoint of individuals which it contains (which determines what can be subsequently succesfully anaphorically referred to). We discuss the possibilities of explicating contexts within the framework of formal semantics and we also discuss the question to which extent contexts belong to semantics.
Accumulation of glycollate or glyoxylate on irradiation of leaf discs in the presence of a-hydroxypyridinemethane sulfonate (a-HPMS) oř glycidate, respectively, was studied in C3-C4 intermediates of Altemanthera species (A. ficoides, A. tenellá) and Paríhenium hysíerophorus in comparison with the partem in C3 or C4 species. The levels of these two photorespiratory metabolites were reduced in the intermediates (< 75 % of that in C3) while being very low in the C4 species (about 10 % of that in C3). The inhibitory effect of bicarbonate on the glycollate or glyoxylate accumulation was pronounced in the C3 species (60 % inhibition), moderate in the intermediates (about 45 %), and very low (< 2 %) in the C4 plants. The negligible effect of bicarbonate on these photorespiratory metabolites in the C4 species is expected to be due to their C4 acid-based C02-concentrating mechanism. In the presence of 5 mM bicarbonate, the levels of glycollate and glyoxylate in the C3 species were similar to those in the C3-C4 intermediates. We speculate that a high intemal CO2 pool, possibly due to an efficient CO2 recycling/refixation mechanism, may be an additional reason besides the partial reduction in photorespiratory enžymic capacity for reduced levels of photorespiratory glycollate/glyoxylate in C3-C4 intermediates.Accumulation of glycollate or glyoxylate on irradiation of leaf discs in the presence of a-hydroxypyridinemethane sulfonate (a-HPMS) oř glycidate, respectively, was studied in C3-C4 intermediates of Altemanthera species (A. ficoides, A. tenellá) and Paríhenium hysíerophorus in comparison with the partem in C3 or C4 species. The levels of these two photorespiratory metabolites were reduced in the intermediates (< 75 % of that in C3) while being very low in the C4 species (about 10 % of that in C3). The inhibitory effect of bicarbonate on the glycollate or glyoxylate accumulation was pronounced in the C3 species (60 % inhibition), moderate in the intermediates (about 45 %), and very low (< 2 %) in the C4 plants. The negligible effect of bicarbonate on these photorespiratory metabolites in the C4 species is expected to be due to their C4 acid-based C02-concentrating mechanism. In the presence of 5 mM bicarbonate, the levels of glycollate and glyoxylate in the C3 species were similar to those in the C3-C4 intermediates. We speculate that a high intemal CO2 pool, possibly due to an efficient CO2 recycling/refixation mechanism, may be an additional reason besides the partial reduction in photorespiratory enžymic capacity for reduced levels of photorespiratory glycollate/glyoxylate in C3-C4 intermediates.
The article draws on the theory of reflexive modernisation (Beck, Giddens) and suggests that the crisis of the welfare state in Europe is triggering a need to strengthen European civil society. Following this idea it is argued that there are pathological elements in the process of the formation of European national identities currently (previously) under way, wherein the constructions of identities are prevailingly negative. It is suggested that Europeans need to maintain and foster feelings of mutuality and belonging in order to protect achieved economic welfare, political liberties, and cultural diversity, and to increase their political and cultural capacity to tackle the challenges of globalisation. First, the author examines the context of identity formation within the process of modernisation, and second, he discusses the arguments put forth in Erik Erikson's well-known theory of identity formation, in order to explore the preconditions, forms, and possibilities of political identity formation within the EU, especially the dynamics between the public sphere and identity-forming processes.
Studie je rozvržena do dvou částí. V části první se pojednává obecných otázkách vztahu formy a funkce v tzv. otázkách zjišťovacích. Formálním aspektem tohoto druhu otázek je především: kladný nebo záporný predikát, slovní druh podmětu (zájmeno nebo substantivum) a jeho pozice ve větě, slovosled podmětu a predikátu (slovosled „přímý“, nebo inverzní) a užívání partikulí a jejich pozice ve větě. Již samotnou kombinací (mj.) těchto formálních vlastností vzniká poměrně složitý obraz celého subsystému dané oblasti gramatiky. Ten je pak mnohonásobně komplikován vztahem dané specifické otázkové formy a její komunikativní funkce (ilokuce). Další větné komplikace pak vznikají v pohledu kontrastivním, neboť jazyky se tu v mnoha ohledech nikoli nepodstatně odlišují. Tato odlišnost má pak vliv i na překlady, jak jsme zjistili i naším korpusovým studiem (viz tabulky).
Ve druhé části studie je podán poměrně detailní přehled obecných i specifických komunikativních funkcí daného typu otázek. Obecně se rozlišují: otázky podivové (You stopped at the Islands7 (suprised)), apelové (s mnoho podtypy, např. Can’t you be strong Peter7), asertivní (se dvěma podtypy: Isn’t it lovely? a Est-ce que ce sont des seins de dix dollars?) a zjištovaci (v užším slova smyslu) se dvěma hlavními podtypy: dubitativní a non-dubitativní.