Conceptual degree-day snow models are often calibrated using runoff observations. This makes the snow models dependent on the rainfall-runoff model they are coupled with. Numerous studies have shown that using Snow Cover Area (SCA) remote sensing observation from MODIS satellites helps to better constrain parameters. The objective of this study was to calibrate the CemaNeige degree-day snow model with SCA and runoff observations. In order to calibrate the snow model with SCA observations, the original CemaNeige SCA formulation was revisited to take into account the hysteresis that exists between SCA and the snow water equivalent (SWE) during the accumulation and melt phases. Several parametrizations of the hysteresis between SWE and SCA were taken from land surface model literature. We showed that they improve the performances of SCA simulation without degrading the river runoff simulation. With this improvement, a new calibration method of the snow model was developed using jointly SCA and runoff observations. Further analysis showed that the CemaNeige calibrated parameter sets are more robust for simulating independent periods than parameter sets obtained from discharge calibration only. Calibrating the snow model using only SCA data gave mixed results, with similar performances as using median parameters from all watersheds calibration.
The infrared thermography has been successfully applied as a tool for high resolution imaging in different hydrological studies. This exploratory experimental study aimed at evaluating the possibility of using infrared thermography to determine the diameter of raindrops. Rain samples are collected on a pre-heated acrylic board, which is exposed to rain during an instant, and thermograms are recorded. The area of the thermal stains (''signatures'' of the raindrops) emerging on the board is measured and converted to drop diameters, applying a calibration equation. Diameters of natural raindrops estimated using this technique were compared with laser disdrometer measurements; the Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient was used for evaluating the match between the resulting histograms of drop size distribution. Results confirm the usefulness of this simple technique for sizing and counting raindrops, although it is unsatisfactory in light rain or drizzle.
Analyzing the process of keeping promise we identify its sequence structure and its phase sequences in time. This allows us to arrive at a time order principle forming according to which obligation performance cannot precede in time its sufficient or necessary conditions performance. We further observe that a given promise must always be taken as an element of a certain system of promises. As a result we review definitions of the terms sufficient condition and necessary condition as no more allowing their mutual defining, or symmetry (conversion). We try to discover the compliance rules concerning the condition - the conditioned vector, the course of events vector and the time vector. We conclude that it indicates an incorrect use if, provided the condition - the conditioned vector complies with the course of events vector, the negative time difference in the descriptive use of sentences involving either the if-then connective or the only if connective is obtained. Only when using sentences for abductive explanation with a dominating epistemic vector the negative difference of time does not indicate erroneous use; however, this is possible only for the term of sufficient condition. We further suggest reviewed definition generalization involving the terms of sufficient condition and necessary condition containing always a parameter element denot-ing a given modality type, or a particular system of rules, laws, etc. Such definition satisfies Brennan’s requirement of a ''general formal scheme'' where the notion of sufficient condition and necessary condition symmetry (conversion) does not apply., Analýzou procesu dodržení příslibu identifikujeme jeho sekvenční strukturu a její fázové sekvence v čase. To nám umožňuje dospět k principu tvorby časového řádu, podle něhož plnění závazku nemůže včas předcházet jeho dostatečným nebo nezbytným výkonovým podmínkám. Dále pozorujeme, že daný slib musí být vždy považován za prvek určitého systému slibů. Jako výsledek přezkoumáváme definice pojmů dostatečná podmínka a nezbytná podmínka, protože již neumožňují jejich vzájemné vymezení nebo symetrii (konverzi). Snažíme se zjistit, jaká pravidla se týkají podmínky - podmíněný vektor, průběh vektoru událostí a časový vektor. Došli jsme k závěru, že indikuje nesprávné použití, pokud podmínka splňuje podmínku vektoru událostí, záporný časový rozdíl v popisném použití vět zahrnujících buď spojku if-then, nebo pouze tehdy, pokud je získáno spojení. Pouze pokud použijete věty pro abduktivní vysvětlení s dominantním epistemickým vektorem, negativní časový rozdíl neznamená chybné použití; to je však možné pouze po dostatečnou dobu. Dále navrhujeme zrevidovat definici definic zahrnující podmínky dostatečné podmínky a nezbytnou podmínku obsahující vždy prvek parametru označující daný typ modality nebo určitý systém pravidel, zákonů atd. Tato definice splňuje požadavek Brennanové na ,,obecný formální systém ''.Tam, kde se nepoužije pojem dostatečná podmínka a nezbytná symetrie podmínky (konverze)., and František Gahér
The paper presents the results of sediment monitoring in a small experimental agricultural Rybárik basin near Považská Bystrica (Western Slovakia). In compare with rainfall-runoff events, during which suspended sediment concentrations increase with the flow, there is no significant relationship between discharge and suspended sediment concentrations measured during the base flow. These concentrations are considerably lower than those measured during rainfall-runoff events. It is clear, that the behaviour of suspended sediment in the small Rybárik basin is not only a function of flow energy conditions. Sediment transport rates are also a function of sediment availability. Based on suspended sediment concentrations and discharge values measured during the base flow for the hydrological year 1986/87 (1-3 day sampling interval) the annual value of suspended sediment load was calculated. The calculated load for the year 1986/87 is 2106 kg year-1 (17.6 t km-2 year-1) for the Rybárik basin. Due to missing data in the rest of the monitoring period, it was not possible to compute sediment load for other years. However, comparison of suspended sediment concentrations measured on infrequent sampling basis (7 day sampling interval approximately) over a period from April 2001 to October 2001 with concentrations measured for the same period in the year 1987 suggests weak changes in suspended sediment loads for the individual hydrological years. and V príspevku sa uvádzajú výsledky monitorovania sedimentov na malom experimentálnom povodí Rybárik pri Považskej Bystrici. V porovnaní so zrážko-odtokovými udalosťami, počas ktorých sa koncentrácia plavenín zvyšuje s prietokom, medzi prietokom a koncentráciou plavenín v podmienkach základného odtoku nie je významný vzájomný vzťah. Hodnoty koncentrácií sú podstatne nižšie ako hodnoty namerané počas zrážko-odtokových udalostí. Je zrejmé, že správanie plavenín na malom povodí Rybárik nie je len funkciou prietoku, ale aj funkciou tzv. dostupnosti sedimentov. Množstvo plavenín transportovaných v podmienkach základného odtoku počas hydrologického roka 1986/87 z povodia Rybárik, určené na základe hodnôt prietoku a koncentrácií plavenín nameraných v 1-3-dňových intervaloch bolo 2106 kg/rok (17.6 t/km2 /rok). Pre nedostatok údajov v iných rokoch monitorovaného obdobia nedalo sa vypočítať množstvo odneseného sedimentu v týchto rokoch. Napriek tomu, porovnanie hodnôt koncentrácií plavenín nameraných vo vzorkách, ktoré boli nepravidelne odoberané priemerne v 7-dňových intervaloch od apríla 2001 do októbra 2001 s hodnotami, ktoré sa vyskytli v rovnakom období v roku 1987, naznačuje nevýrazné zmeny v množstvách transportovaných plavenín počas jednotlivých hydrologických rokov.
Several alternative definitions of extreme events are proposed. As the first step a statistical analysis of daily precipitation measurement time series from the Hurbanovo SHMI Observatory and elaboration of potentially dangerous precipitation events is carried out. Then, combined characteristics based on daily temperature, daily air humidity and daily precipitation totals are computed. The drought index based on normalized deviations from long-term averages is defined. Alternatively, to define extreme events ''Data envelopment analysis'' (DEA) is employed with K-day periods of values of temperature, humidity and precipitation corresponding to decision making units. In this paper we have used the period of K = 10 days for both methodologies for identification of extreme events. The results of all definitions of extreme events are compared. and V článku navrhujeme niekoľko definícií extrémnych udalostí. Ako prvý krok je vypracovaná štatistická analýza denných úhrnov zrážok z observatória SHMÚ v Hurbanove, na základe ktorej označujeme extrémne udalosti. Následne počítame kombinované charakteristiky období sucha založené na denných údajoch teploty, vlhkosti vzduchu a denných úhrnoch zrážok. Index sucha je založený na normalizovaných odchýlkach od dlhodobých priemerov. Alternatívne definujeme extrémne udalosti na základe DEA analýzy, kde K-denné periódy teploty, vlhkosti a zrážok slúžia ako rozhodovacie jednotky. V tomto článku sme na identifikáciu extrémnych udalostí pre obe metodológie použili periódu K = 10 dní. Výsledky všetkých prístupov nakoniec porovnávame.
In the Southeastern Black Sea Region, rivers are dammed for hydroelectric power and irrigation. The natural course of fluvial alluvium transport is almost completely altered because of planned and constructed dams and coastal protection measures. Decreasing volume of sediment carried to the sea cause intensification of the shore erosion. The Black Sea Rivers and coastal areas of Turkey and Georgia are under heavy anthropogenic pressure because of the bed material extraction and coastal erosion rate. In this study, environmental effects of dams and related effects of sediment transport on coastal erosion in the Eastern Black Sea region are discussed. and Rieky v juhovýchodnej časti regiónu Čierneho mora sú prehradené priehradami, ktoré slúžia na výrobu elektrickej energie a na závlahy. Prirodzený transport plavenín a splavenín sa v dôsledku výstavby plánovaných a realizovaných priehrad takmer úplne zmenil. Znížený objem sedimentov dopravovaných do mora spôsobuje intenzifikáciu erózie brehov riek. Rieky ústiace do Čierneho mora v oblasti pobrežia Turecka a Gruzínska sú výrazne ovplyvnené ľudskou činnosťou, ako je ťažba materiálu z riek a eróziou brehov. V tejto práci sa analyzuje vplyv priehrad na životné prostredie krajiny vo východnej časti Čierneho mora.
In the paper, I discuss Robert Kirk’s attempt to refute the zombie argument against materialism by demonstrating, “in a way that is intuitively appealing as well as cogent”, that the idea of phenomenal zombies involves incoherence. Kirk’s argues that if one admits that a world of zombies z is conceivable, one should also admit the conceivability of a certain transformation from such a world to a world z* that satisfies a description D, and it is arguable that D is incoherent. From which, Kirk suggests, it follows that the idea of zombies is incoherent. I argue that Kirk’s argument has several minor deficiencies and two major flaws. First, he takes for granted that cognitive mental states are physical (cognitive physicalism), although a zombist is free to—and would better—reject this view. Second, he confuses elements of different scenarios of transformation, none of which results in the incoherent description D.