Arthur Prior’s logic was influenced, among others, by logicians from the Lvov-Warsaw school. This paper introduces the impact Leśniewski’s Ontology had on Prior’s logical system. The paper describes the main characteristics of Leśniewski’s Ontology, Prior’s logical system and the manner in which Prior became acquainted with Leśniewski’s logical system. Since Leśniewski was no longer alive when Prior began to develop his logical system and Leśniewski’s papers were not easily available to Prior, this paper also includes Prior’s interpretation of Leśniewski’s logical system which did not always correspond to Leśniewski’s original ideas., Logika Arthura Priora byla ovlivněna mimo jiné i logiky ze školy ve Lvově-Varšavě. Tento článek představuje dopad Leśniewského ontologie na logický systém Prior. Článek popisuje hlavní charakteristiky Leśniewského ontologie, logického systému Prior a způsob, jakým se Prior seznámil s Leśniewského logickým systémem. Vzhledem k tomu, že Leśniewski už nebyl naživu, když Prior začal rozvíjet svůj logický systém a Leśniewskiho dokumenty nebyly Prioritě snadno dostupné, tento dokument zahrnuje také Prorovu interpretaci Leśniewského logického systému, který ne vždy odpovídal Leśniewského původním myšlenkám., and Zuzana Rybaříková
In this paper I defend the rejection of fatalism about the past by showing that there are possible circumstances in which it would be rational to attempt to bring about by our decisions and actions a necessary and sufficient condition, other things being equal, for something which we see as favorable to have occurred in the past. The examples I put forward are analogous to our attempts to bring about the occurrence of future events, and demonstrate the symmetry between the past and the future in this respect., V tomto příspěvku hájím odmítnutí fatalismu o minulosti tím, že dokazuji, že existují možné okolnosti, za kterých by bylo rozumné pokusit se o naše rozhodnutí a činy učinit nezbytnou a dostatečnou podmínkou, jiné věci jsou rovnocenné, za něco, co jsme v minulosti bylo příznivé. Příklady, které jsem předložil, jsou analogické s našimi pokusy o nastolení budoucích událostí a v tomto ohledu ukazují symetrii mezi minulostí a budoucností., and Gal Yehezkel
Salinization is an increasing enviromental problem in ecosystems. The assessment of total dissolved solids (TDS), pH, electrical conductivity (EC), exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), alkalinity and the concentrations of main ions makes possible to identify salinization and alkalization degree. The saltaffected soils occur in the south part and south-east part of Žitný ostrov, where the dry and mild summer climate, evaporation soil water regime and mineralized groundwater create conditions for development of the saline and alkaline soils. Five localities with highly-mineralized groundwater were monitored to evaluate salinity and alkality in the period 1989-2006. At the bottom horizons in localities 1 - 5 evaporative residues (salt content) reached value 0.1 - 0.2 %. In 2006 dry evaporative residues (salt content) was higher than 0.2 %, EC was higher than 250 mS m-1 at the bottom horizons in localities 1, 2, 4. The mentioned data allow us to state that salinization and alkalization of soils is developing, it starts from the bottom of soil horizons through middle part of the soil profile up to the top horizons. This phenomenon was observed in all investigated soils in different stages of development. and Salinizácia v ekosystémoch je stále významnejší enviromentálny problém. Stanovenie celkového množstva rozpustených látok (TDS), elektrickej vodivosti (EC), sodíkového adsorpčného pomeru (SAR) a obsahu výmenného sodíka (ESP) umožňuje identifikáciu kritického potenciálu salinizácie a degradácie pôdy. Záujmové územie bolo vymedzené vo východnej časti Žitného ostrova, kde suché a horúce klimatické podmienky spolu s vysokomineralizovanými podzemnými vodami sú príčinou translokácie solí do pôdneho profilu. Bolo monitorovaných 5 lokalít v období 1989 - 2006. Namerané údaje poukazujú na vzrastajúci obsah solí, ktorý v r. 2006 dosiahol 0,1 - 0,2 % v celom pôdnom profile vo všetkých monitorovaných lokalitách, hodnoty EC 200 - 400 mS m-1 v spodných horizontoch vytvárajú podmienky pre rozvoj zasolených pôd.
Lukowski has argued that, if it is the case that there are actual non-monotonic inferences, they are very hard to find. In this paper, a representative kind of inference that is often considered to be non-monotonic is addressed. Likewise, certain arguments provided by Lukowski to demonstrate that that type of inference is not really non-monotonic are reviewed too. Finally, I propose an explanation of why, despite the fact that the arguments given by him seem to be convincing, it is usually thought that those inferences are not monotonic. In this way, I also try to account for the role that disjunction has in this issue and argue in favor of the idea that we can continue to suppose that the human mind does not ignore the essential requirements of classical logic. and Lukowski argumentoval, že pokud je tomu tak, že existují skutečné nemontotonické závěry, je velmi těžké je najít. V tomto příspěvku je řešen typický závěr, který je často považován za nemontonický. Stejně tak některé argumenty, které poskytl Lukowski k prokázání toho, že tento typ závěru není skutečně nemonotonický, jsou také přezkoumány. Nakonec navrhuji vysvětlení toho, proč navzdory skutečnosti, že jeho argumenty se zdají být přesvědčivé, je obvykle myšleno, že tyto závěry nejsou monotonické. Tímto způsobem se také snažím vysvětlit úlohu, kterou má disjunkce v této otázce, a argumentovat ve prospěch myšlenky, že můžeme i nadále předpokládat, že lidská mysl ignoruje základní požadavky klasické logiky.
In this paper, I argue that the notion of ''best explanation'', as it appears in the Inference to the Best Explanation (IBE), can be defined in terms of explanatory power (EP) (i.e. the best explanation among a set of possible explanations is the one having the highest EP), if we employ a probabilistic measure of EP, which takes into account both the likelihoods and the prior probabilities of the compared explanatory hypotheses. Although the association between the EP of a hypothesis and its likelihood is largely uncontroversial, most of those working on EP do not see an association between EP and the prior probability of an explanatory hypothesis. I provide three examples (two toy examples and one from real scientific practice), in order to show that the role of priors in decisions about the best explanatory hypothesis deserves a serious consideration. I also show that such an explication of ''best explanation'' allows us to compare IBE and Bayesian confirmation theory (BCT) in terms of the probabilities they assign to two competing hypotheses, and thus to elicit the conditions under which both IBE and BCT lead to the same conclusion and are in this sense compatible., V tomto příspěvku tvrdím, že pojem ,,nejlepší vysvětlení'', jak je uveden v Úmluvě k nejlepšímu vysvětlení (IBE), lze definovat z hlediska vysvětlující síly (EP) (tj. Nejlepší vysvětlení mezi množstvím možných vysvětlení je ta, která má nejvyšší EP), pokud použijeme pravděpodobnostní měřítko EP, které bere v úvahu jak pravděpodobnosti, tak i předchozí pravděpodobnosti porovnávaných vysvětlujících hypotéz. Ačkoli asociace mezi EP hypotézy a její pravděpodobností je do značné míry nekontroverzní, většina z těch, kteří pracují na EP, nevidí asociaci mezi EP a předchozí pravděpodobností vysvětlující hypotézy. Uvádím tři příklady (dvě příklady hraček a jednu ze skutečné vědecké praxe), aby bylo zřejmé, že role předchůdců v rozhodování o nejlepší vysvětlující hypotéze si zaslouží seriózní zvážení. Rovněž dokazuji, že takové vysvětlení ,,nejlepšího vysvětlení'' nám umožňuje porovnat IBE a Bayesovskou potvrzovací teorii (BCT) z hlediska pravděpodobností, které přiřazují dvěma konkurenčním hypotézám, a tak vyvolat podmínky, za kterých IBE i BCT vedou k stejný závěr a jsou v tomto smyslu slučitelné., and Anton Donchev
Subtropical regions have clay-rich, weathered soils, and long dry periods followed by intense rainfall that produces large fluctuations in soil water content (SWC) and hydrological behavior. This complicates predictions of spatiotemporal dynamics, as datasets are typically collected at too coarse resolution and observations often represent a duration that is too short to capture temporal stability. The aim of the present study was to gain further insights into the role of temporal sampling scale on the observed temporal stability features of SWC order to aid the design of optimal SWC sampling strategies. This focused on both sampling frequency and total monitoring duration, as previous analyses have not considered both of these sampling aspects simultaneously. We collected relatively high resolution data of SWC (fortnightly over 3.5 years) for various soil depths and under contrasting crops (peanuts and citrus) at the red soil region of southeast China. The dataset was split into a three-year training period and a six-month evaluation period. Altogether 13 sampling frequencies (intervals ranging from 15 to 240 days) and eight monitoring duration periods (between three and 36 months) were derived from the training period to identify temporal stability features and the most time stable location (MTSL). The prediction accuracies of these MTSLs were tested using the independent evaluation data. Results showed that vegetation type did affect the spatio-temporal patterns of SWC, whereby the citrus site exhibited a stronger temporal variation and weaker temporal stability than the peanut site. However, the effects of both sampling frequency and observation duration were more pronounced, irrespective of the role of vegetation type or soil depth. With increasing sampling interval or decreasing monitoring duration, temporal stability of SWC was generally overestimated; by less than 10% when sampling interval increased from every 15 to 240 days and by up to 40% with duration decreasing from 36 to 3 months. Our results suggest that sampling strategies and trade-offs between sampling interval and duration should focus on capturing the main variability in hydro-climatological conditions. For subtropical conditions, we found that sampling once every 45 days over 24 months to be the minimum sampling strategy to ensure errors in SWC temporal stability of less than 10%.
Direct interpolation of daily runoff observations to ungauged sites is an alternative to hydrological model regionalisation. Such estimation is particularly important in small headwater basins characterized by sparse hydrological and climate observations, but often large spatial variability. The main objective of this study is to evaluate predictive accuracy of top-kriging interpolation driven by different number of stations (i.e. station densities) in an input dataset. The idea is to interpolate daily runoff for different station densities in Austria and to evaluate the minimum number of stations needed for accurate runoff predictions. Top-kriging efficiency is tested for ten different random samples in ten different stations densities. The predictive accuracy is evaluated by ordinary cross-validation and full-sample crossvalidations. The methodology is tested by using 555 gauges with daily observations in the period 1987-1997. The results of the cross-validation indicate that, in Austria, top-kriging interpolation is superior to hydrological model regionalisation if station density exceeds approximately 2 stations per 1000 km2 (175 stations in Austria). The average median of Nash-Sutcliffe cross-validation efficiency is larger than 0.7 for densities above 2.4 stations/1000 km2 . For such densities, the variability of runoff efficiency is very small over ten random samples. Lower runoff efficiency is found for low station densities (less than 1 station/1000 km2 ) and in some smaller headwater basins.
In this paper, I use Wittgenstein’s private language argument for reflecting on some folk-linguistic misconceptions. In Section 1, I show that elements of the private language semantics inform common ways of looking at some situations referred to as ''misunderstandings''. I suggest that it would be appropriate to conceive of the alleged misunderstandings as practical attitudes of mistreatment. This suggestion is explored in Section 2, which is devoted to a commonly assumed prominent example of the problem: the so-called inter-gender misunderstanding. It is believed that men and women use language in systematically different ways, as a result of which they do not understand each other properly, because they miss what their interlocutors ''mean''. The conceptual apparatus of mentalist semantics presumed here is abused in order to advocate morally reprehensible actions against women. In Section 3, I suggest that the Wittgensteinian accounts of language and mind offer arguments for denying private conceptions of understanding on the grounds of both philosophy of language and ethics., V tomto příspěvku používám argument Wittgensteinova soukromého jazyka, který reflektuje některé lidově-lingvistické mylné představy. V části 1 ukazuji, že prvky sémantiky soukromého jazyka informují o běžných způsobech, jak se podívat na některé situace označované jako ''nedorozumění''. Navrhuji, aby bylo možné považovat údajné nedorozumění za praktické postoje ohledně špatného zacházení. Tento návrh je zkoumán v části 2, která se věnuje běžně předpokládanému příkladnému problému: tzv. Nedorozumění mezi pohlavími. Předpokládá se, že muži a ženy používají jazyk systematicky různými způsoby, v důsledku čehož se správně nerozpoznávají, protože jim chybí to, co jejich partneři ''znamenají''. Konceptuální aparát mentalizované sémantiky, který se zde předpokládá, je zneužíván, aby obhajoval morálně odsouzené činy proti ženám. V sekci 3 navrhuji, aby Wittgensteinovské popisy jazyka a mysli nabízely argumenty pro popření soukromých koncepcí porozumění na základě filozofie jazyka a etiky., and Ondřej Beran
The characteristic asymmetry in ascribing intentionality, known as the Knobe effect, is widely thought to result from the moral evaluation of the side effect. Existing research has focused mostly on elucidating the ordinary meaning of the notion of intentionality, while less effort has been devoted to the moral conditions associated with the analyzed scenarios. The current analysis of the moral prop-erties of the main and side effects, as well as of the moral evaluations of the relationship between them, sheds new light on the influence of moral considerations on the attribution of intentionality in the Knobe effect. The moral evaluation of the relationship between the main and side effects is significant in that under certain circumstances it cancels asymmetry in intentionality ascription.
The application of Brilliant Blue FCF tracer enables to identify flow types in multi-domain porous systems of soils via analyses of morphologic parameters of stained objects occurring in dye pattern profiles, as they represent the footprint of flow processes which occurred in soil during both the infiltration and the redistribution of dye solution. We analysed the vertical dye pattern profiles exposed for different time lengths, and revealed temporal evolution of dye solution redistribution leading to changes in flow types. The field experiment was performed with the Brilliant Blue tracer (the 10 g l–1 concentration) applied on 1m x 1m surface of the Dystric Cambisol. The top litter horizon had been removed before 100 l of the tracer was applied. Four vertical profiles were excavated on the experimental plot (always 20 cm apart) at different times after the irrigation had been finished: 2 hours (CUT 2), 24 hours (CUT 24), 27 hours (CUT 27) and 504 hours (CUT 504). The analyses of the dyed patterns profiles showed the spatio-temporal changes in the dye coverage, surface area density, average BB concentration, and stained path width, which allowed us to specify three stages of dye solution redistribution history: (i) a stage of preferential macropore flow, (ii) a stage of strong interaction between macropore-domain and soil matrix leading to the generation of heterogeneous matrix flow and fingering flow types, and (iii) a final stage of dye redistribution within the soil body connected with leaching of BB caused by meteoric water. With increasing time, the macropore flow types convert to mostly matrix-dominated FTs in the upper part of the soil profile. These results were supported by soil hydrological modelling, which implied that more than 70% of the soil moisture profiles variability among CUT 2–CUT 504 could be explained by the time factor.