In this paper, I combine an exposition of the historical development of sociology and the philosophy of science from the era of grand theories onwards, with an explication as to why the grand theories have failed. First, I trace some parallels in the history of each of the disciplines. After presenting their chronological development, I scrutinize the metatheoretical findings about the disciplines and examine the main ontological and epistemic reasons why attempts at these general theories or frameworks have not succeeded. Among them are the lack of a universal methodology and of a theoretical core, together with the impossibility of achieving a common objective view. On this basis I conclude that general theories or frameworks are not achievable in principle. As it turns out, however, some contemporary social theorists and philosophers still harbor hopes that they can be successfully formulated, or at the least do not rule out such a possibility. Thus, in closing, I argue that the critical points can also be applied to these latest attempts, as the call for grand theories or frameworks has never ceased and returns regularly with each new generation of social theorists and philosophers of science. and Tento článek kombinuje přehled historického vývoje sociologie a filosofie vědy od období „velkých“ teorií s výkladem toho, proč tyto teorie selhaly. V první části sleduji historické paralely v obou těchto disciplínách. Po představení jejich chronologického vývoje analyzuji metateoretické závěry, které z toho vyplývají, a zkoumám hlavní epistemické a ontologické důvody, proč neuspěly – mezi nimi chybějící univerzální metodologii a teoretické jádro i nemožnost dosažení objektivního náhledu. Z toho vyvozuji závěr, že velké teorie nejsou principiálně zkonstruovatelné. Ukazuje se nicméně, že některé současní sociální teoretici i filosofové vědy stále doufají, že takové teorie nebo rámce mohou být úspěšně formulovány, nebo přinejmenším takovou možnost nevylučují. V závěru argumentuji, že kritika vznesená vůči těmto dřívějším teoriím může být uplatněna i na tyto aktuální pokusy. Ukazuje se totiž, že volání po těchto teoriích a rámcích nikdy úplně nepřestalo a opakuje se s každou novou generací sociálních vědců a filosofů vědy.
This paper addresses the so-called ''truthmaker problem'' or ''grounding problem'' for presentism. In section 1, I set the stage by introducing presentism and the truthmaker problem. In section 2, I consider a proposed solution to it, which I call the ''laws of nature proposal'' (LNP), recently defended by Markosian (2013). I argue that LNP fails as a solution to the truthmaker problem because it does not meet a constraint that is generally taken as constitutive of it: that the entities doing truthmaker work should be categorical. Then, in section 3, I discuss the prospects of abandoning this ''categoricity constraint''. The conclusion of this discussion is that the presentist should be allowed to such a move. This, however, is not completely good news for the friends of LNP, since the abandonment of the ''categoricity constraint'' opens the door to simpler solutions, like what is often called ''Lucretianism''., Tento článek se zabývá tzv. ,,Problémem pravdy'' nebo ,,problémem uzemnění'' pro presentismus. V oddíle 1 jsem stanovil etapu zavedením presentismu a problematiky pravdy. V oddíle 2 se zabývám navrhovaným řešením, které nazývám ,,zákony o přírodním návrhu'' (LNP), které nedávno obhajoval Markosian (2013). Domnívám se, že LNP selhává jako řešení problému s pravdivostí, protože nesplňuje omezení, které je obecně považováno za jeho konstitutivní: že subjekty provádějící práci s pravdivostí by měly být kategorické. Poté v oddíle 3 diskutuji vyhlídky na opuštění této ,,kategorie omezení''. Závěrem této diskuse je, že by měl být moderátorovi umožněn takový krok. To však není pro přátele LNP úplně dobrá zpráva, protože opuštění ,,kategorického omezení'' otevírá dveře k jednodušším řešením, jako je to, co se často nazývá ''lykretianismus''., and Pablo Rychter
Normative judgement internalism claims that enkrasia is an ideal of rational agency that poses a necessary link between making a normative judgement, and forming an intention to act according to that judgement. Against this view, I argue that enkrasia does not require the formation of new intentional states; instead, it requires that the agent’s intentions do not contravene her normative judgements. The main argument for considering that an intention ought to follow from a normative judgement is the claim that the conclusion of practical reasoning is an intention. I will argue that this account is mistaken: practical reasoning aims at justifying certain actions or intentions, and thus its conclusion is a normative judgement. Defenders of NJI might argue, though, that intentions ought to follow from our normative judgements, because of certain requirements affecting not only practical reasoning, but rational agency. I argue that this conception of enkrasia is too demanding. Enkrasia, I suggest, is better understood as a restriction over our intentions: they ought not enter into conflict with our judgements., Normativní soudní internacionalismus tvrdí, že enkrasia je ideálem racionální agentury, která představuje nezbytnou vazbu mezi normativním úsudkem a záměrem jednat podle tohoto úsudku. Proti tomuto názoru tvrdím, že enkrasia nevyžaduje vytvoření nových záměrných států; místo toho vyžaduje, aby úmysly agenta neporušovaly její normativní úsudky. Hlavním argumentem pro uvážení, že záměr má vycházet z normativního rozsudku, je tvrzení, že závěr praktického uvažování je záměrem. Budu argumentovat, že tento účet je chybný: praktické úvahy směřují k ospravedlnění určitých činností nebo záměrů, a proto je jeho závěr normativním úsudkem. Obhájci NJI by však mohli argumentovat, že záměry by měly vycházet z našich normativních úsudků, vzhledem k určitým požadavkům ovlivňujícím nejen praktické úvahy, ale i racionální agenturu. Tvrdím, že tato koncepce enkrasie je příliš náročná. Enkrasia, myslím, je lépe chápána jako omezení našich záměrů: neměly by vstupovat do konfliktu s našimi rozsudky., and Miranda del Corral
This paper critical y examines two objections and raises a new objection against the besire theory of moral judgment. Firstly, Smith (1994) observes that a belief that p tends to expire whereas a desire that p tends to endure on the perception that not p. His observation does not refute the sophisticated version of the besire theory that to besire that p is to believe that p and to desire to act in accordance with the belief that p. Secondly, Zangwil (2008) claims that the strength of motivation may vary while the degree of belief remains constant. Besirists would reply that a besire admits of both degree and strength. Finally, I argue that the belief that p endures while the desire to act on the belief that p expires with the introduction of a new bodily condition, and hence that the belief and the desire are distinct mental states., Tento článek kriticky zkoumá dvě námitky a vznáší novou námitku proti teorii morálního úsudku. Za prvé, Smith (1994) poznamenává, že víra, že p má tendenci vypršet, zatímco touha, že p má tendenci vytrvat na vnímání, které není p. Jeho pozorování nevyvrací sofistikovanou verzi teorie besiru, která by měla být přesvědčena, že p má věřit, že p a touha jednat v souladu s vírou, že p. Zadruhé, Zangwil (2008) tvrdí, že síla motivace se může lišit, zatímco míra přesvědčení zůstává konstantní. Besiristé by odpověděli, že besire přiznává jak stupeň, tak sílu. Konečně, argumentuji, že víra, že p trvá, zatímco touha jednat na víře, že p vyprší se zavedením nové tělesné podmínky, a proto že víra a touha jsou odlišné duševní stavy., and Seungbae Park
Processes of adult neurogenesis can be influenced by environmental factors. Here, we investigated the effect of microwave radiation (MWR) on proliferation and cell dying in the rat rostral migratory stream (RMS) - a migration route for the neuroblasts of the subventricular zone. Adult and juvenile (two weeks old) rats were exposed to a pulsed-wave MWR at the frequency of 2.45 GHz for 1 or 3 h daily during 3 weeks. Adult rats were divided into two groups: without survival and with two weeks survival after irradiation. Juvenile rats survived till adulthood, when were tested in the light/dark test. Proliferating cells in the RMS were labeled by Ki-67; dying cells were visualized by Fluoro-Jade C histochemistry. In both groups of rats irradiated as adults we have observed significant decrease of the number of dividing cells within the RMS. Exposure of juvenile rats to MWR induced only slight decrease in proliferation, however, it strikingly affected cell death even two months following irradiation. In addition, these rats displayed locomotor hyperactivity and decreased risk assessment in adulthood. Our results suggest that the long-lasting influence of radiation is manifested by affected cell survival and changes in animals´ behavior., A. Raček, K. Beňová, P. Arnoul, M. Závodská, A. Angelidis, V. Cigánková, V. Šimaiová, E. Račeková., and Obsahuje bibliografii
Mechanisms underlying atrial fibrillation (AF), the most common cardiac arrhythmia, particularly in aged population, are not fully elucidated. We have previously shown an increased propensity of old guinea pigs (GPs) heart to inducible AF when comparing to young animals. This study aimed to verify our hypothesis that susceptibility of aged heart to AF may be attributed to abnormalities in myocardial connexin-43 (Cx43) and extracellular matrix that affect cardiac electrical properties. Experiments were conducted on male and female 4-week-old and 24-week-old GPs. Atrial tissue was processed for analysis of Cx43 topology using immunohistochemistry, expression of Cx43 protein using immunobloting, and expression of mRNA of Cx43 and extracellular matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) using real time PCR. Immunohistochemistry revealed uniform Cx43 distribution predominantly on lateral sides of the cardiomyocytes of young male and female GP atria. In contrast, non-uniform distribution, mislocalization and reduced immunolabeling of Cx43 were detected in atria of old GPs. In parallel, the atrial tissue levels of Cx43 mRNA were significantly decreased, while mRNA expression of MMP-2 was significantly increased in old versus young GPs. The changes were more pronounced in old GPs males comparing to females. Findings indicate that age-related down-regulation of atrial Cx43 and up-regulation of MMP-2 as well as disordered Cx43 distribution can facilitate development of AF in old guinea pig hearts., V. Nagibin, T. Egan Benova, C. Viczenczova, B. Szeiffova Bacova, I. Dovinova, M. Barancik, N. Tribulova., and Obsahuje bibliografii
The modern generation of electronic detectors, such as the CCD, have made improved photometry possible, especially at magnitudes near photographic plate limits and at wavelengths extending to the near infrared. Vigorous efforts should now be made to extend measurements to longer wavelengths since VandenBerg and Bell (1985) have recently calculated BVRI synthetic isochrones. Consequently, we have embarked on a program of CCD BVRI photometry for determining the ages of globular clusters.
From BVRI CCD frames obtained with the 1.54 Danish telescope at ESO-La Silla we have at this moment completed the reductions of the following 5 globular clusters: NGC 104 (47 Tuc), NGC 2298, NGC 5139 ( 0) Cen), NGC 6121 (M4), and NGC 6362. For these clusters, we have derived ages all close to 17x10^0y. Providing strong evidence that the globular cluster system is coeval, and that the epoch of the galactic contraction was short.
This paper deals with the satisfaction of the well-known Non-Contradiction (NC) and Excluded-Middle (EM) principles within the framework of aggregation operators. Both principles are interpreted in a non-standard way, based on self-contradiction (as in Ancient Logic) instead of falsity (as in Modern Logic). The logical negation is represented by means of strong negation functions, and conditions are given both for those aggregation operators that satisfy NC/EM with respect to (w.r.t.) some given strong negation, as well as for those satisfying the laws w.r.t. any strong negation. The results obtained are applied to some of the most important known classes of aggregation operators.
In spite of increasing studies and investigations in the field of aggregation operators, there are two fundamental problems remaining unsolved: aggregation of L-fuzzy set-theoretic notions and their justification. In order to solve these problems, we will formulate aggregation operators and their special types on partially ordered sets with universal bounds, and introduce their categories. Furthermore, we will show that there exists a strong connection between the category of aggregation operators on partially ordered sets with universal bounds (\textbf{Agop}) and the category of partially ordered groupoids with universal bounds (\textbf{Pogpu}). Moreover, the subcategories of \textbf{Agop} consisting of associative aggregation operators, symmetric and associative aggregation operators and associative aggregation operators with neutral elements are, respectively, isomorphic to the subcategories of \textbf{Pogpu} formed by partially ordered semigroups, commutative partially ordered semigroups and partially ordered monoids in the sense of Birkhoff. As a justification of the present notions and results, some relevant examples for aggregations operators on partially ordered sets are given. Particularly, aggregation process in probabilistic metric spaces is also considered.