This paper surveys a new approach to interpretation of Wittgenstein’s Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus - the resolute reading. The proponents of the resolute interpretation (especially Cora Diamond and James F. Conant) have argued that the central point of Tractatus is § 6.54. The reading of the section should be resolute, which means the sentences in Tractatus are simply nonsense (einfach Unsinn). Thus, the Tractatus’ aim is not a theory or doctrine of aspects of reality, language or their relation. On the other hand, the main point of the text should be elucidation of the reader’s points. The paper analyses two assumptions in the resolute reading and submits criticism of them. The basis of the criticism is to verify the validity of resolute reading’s assumptions by reference to Notebooks, Prototractatus, correspondence and some manuscripts and typescripts from the Tractatus period in Wittgenstein’s thinking., Příspěvek se zabývá novým přístupem k interpretaci Wittgensteinova Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus - rozhodného čtení. Zastáncové rozhodného výkladu (obzvláště Cora diamant a James F. Conant) argumentovali, že centrální bod Tractatus je § 6.54. Čtení sekce by mělo být rozhodné , což znamená, že věty v Tractatus jsou prostě nesmysly ( einfach Unsinn ). Tak, Tractatus ' cíl není teorie nebo doktrína aspektů reality, jazyka nebo jejich vztahu. Na druhé straně by hlavní bod textu měl být objasněnčtenářských bodů. Příspěvek analyzuje dva předpoklady v rozhodném čtení a kritizuje je. Základem kritiky je ověřit platnost předpokladů rozhodného čtení odkazem na Notebooky, Prototractatus , korespondenci a některé rukopisy a strojopisy z období Tractatus v Wittgensteinově myšlení., and Tomáš Došek
The article deals with the question of correct reconstruction of and solutions to the ancient paradoxes. Analyzing one contemporary example of a reconstruction of the so-called Crocodile Paradox, taken from Sorensen’s A Brief History of Paradox, the author shows how the original pattern of paradox could have been incorrectly transformed in its meaning by overlooking its adequate historical background. Sorensen’s quoting of Aphthonius, as the author of a certain solution to the paradox, seems to be a systematic failure since the time of Politiano’s erroneous attributing it to Aphthonius. In the conclusion, the author claims that neglecting the historical background of the ancient paradoxes into account, we are neither able to evaluate their modern interpretations as adequate nor their solutions as successful., Článek se zabývá otázkou správné rekonstrukce a řešení starověkých paradoxů. Analýza jednoho současného příkladu rekonstrukce tzv. Krokodýlového paradoxu, převzatého z Sorensenovy stručné historie paradoxu , ukazuje, jak mohl být původní vzor paradoxu ve svém významu nesprávně transformován tím, že přehlédl jeho historické pozadí. Sorensenovo citování Aphthoniusa, jako autora určitého řešení paradoxu, se jeví jako systematické selhání od doby, kdy ho politiánův omyl přisuzoval Aphthoniusovi. V závěru autorka prohlašuje, že zanedbání historického pozadí starověkých paradoxů není schopno hodnotit jejich moderní interpretace jako adekvátní ani jejich řešení jako úspěšná., and Vladimír Marko
In chapter 3 of Individuals, entitled ''Persons'', Strawson argues against dualism and the no-ownership theory, and proposes instead that our concept of a person is a primitive concept. In this paper, it is argued that the basic questions that frame Strawson’s discussion, and some of his main arguments and claims, are dubious. A general diagnosis of the source of these problems is proposed. It is argued that despite these problems Strawson gives an accurate and very insightful description of the way we think about ourselves, which should form the starting point for more speculative accounts of ourselves., V kapitole 3 Jednotlivci, nazvané ,,Osoby'', Strawson argumentuje proti dualismu a teorii ne-vlastnictví a místo toho navrhuje, aby naše pojetí člověka bylo primitivním pojmem. V tomto příspěvku se argumentuje tím, že základní otázky, které tvoří rámec Strawsonovy diskuse, a některé z jeho hlavních argumentů a tvrzení, jsou pochybné. Navrhuje se obecná diagnostika zdroje těchto problémů. Tvrdí se, že navzdory těmto problémům poskytuje Strawson přesný a velmi bystrý popis způsobu, jakým přemýšlíme o sobě, který by měl být výchozím bodem pro spekulativnější účty o sobě., and Paul Snowdon
As has often been observed in the literature, an utterance of a generic such as ‘Boys don’t cry’ can convey a normative behavioral rule that applies to boys, roughly: that boys shouldn’t cry. This observation has led many authors to the claim that generics are ambiguous: they allow both for a descriptive as well as a normative reading. The present paper argues against this common assumption: it argues that the observation in question should be addressed at the level of pragmatics, rather than at the level of semantics. In particular, the paper argues that the normative force of utterances of generics results from the presence of a conversational implicature. This result should somewhat alleviate the task of finding a proper semantic analysis of generics since it shows that at least one of their intriguing features need not be reflected in their truth-conditions.
(E)straperlo: the beginning of the end of the Second Spanish Republic? The example of the political corruption and comparison of the reflection on crisis in Madrid and Asturias.
Wittgenstein’s approach to philosophy is closely related not only to the content but also to the form of his investigations. The following paper presents the uniqueness of Wittgenstein’s writing style, namely his use of questions, by comparing part of his work with Austin’s essay. For this purpose a typology of questions with regard to their function in the text is established and applied. The difference between Wittgenstein’s and Austin’s writing style is then documented by the frequency of certain types of questions, and omission of others, and related to some of Wittgenstein’s remarks about his approach to philosophical inquiry. The difference is then summarized tentatively as one between ''pedagogical'' and ''academic'' writing style, which poses questions concerning the translation of Wittgenstein’s investigations into academic prose., Wittgensteinův přístup k filozofii úzce souvisí nejen s obsahem, ale také s formou jeho vyšetřování. Následující článek prezentuje jedinečnost Wittgensteinova stylu psaní, konkrétně jeho použití otázek, porovnáním části jeho práce s Austinovým esejem. Pro tento účel je zavedena a aplikována typologie otázek s ohledem na jejich funkci v textu. Rozdíl mezi Wittgensteinovým a Austinovým stylem psaní je pak dokumentován četností určitých typů otázek a opomenutím druhých a je spojen s některými Wittgensteinovými poznámkami o jeho přístupu k filosofickému zkoumání. Rozdíl je pak předběžně shrnut jako ,,pedagogický'' a ,,akademický'' styl psaní, který představuje otázky týkající se překladu Wittgensteinových výzkumů do akademické prózy., and Blahoslav Fajmon
In this paper, I want to address once more the venerable problem of intentional identity, the problem of how different thoughts can be about the same thing even if this thing does not exist. First, I will try to show that antirealist approaches to this problem are doomed to fail. For they ultimately share a problematic assumption, namely that thinking about something involves identifying it. Second, I will claim that once one rejects this assumption and holds instead that thoughts are constituted either by what they are about, their intentional objects, or by what determines their proposition-like intentional contents, one can address the problem of intentional identity in a different way. One can indeed provide a new solution to it that basically relies on two factors: a) what sort of metaphysical nature intentional objects effectively possess, once they are conceived as schematic objects à la Crane (2001, 2013); b) whether such objects really belong to the overall ontological inventory of what there is., According to this solution, two thoughts are about the same nonexistent intentional object iff i) that object satisfies the identity criterion for objects of that metaphysical kind and ii) objects of that kind belong to the overall ontological inventory of what there is, independently of whether they exist (in a suitable first-order sense of existence). As such, this solution is neither realist nor antirealist: only if condition ii) is satisfied, different thoughts can be about the same nonexistent intentionale; otherwise, they are simply constituted by the same intentional content (provided that this content is not equated with that intentionale). Third, armed with this solution, I will hold that one can find a suitable treatment of the specific and related problem of whether different people may mock-think about the same thing, even if there really is no such thing. Finally, I will try to show that this treatment can be also applied to the case in which different thoughts are, according to phenomenology, about the same intentionale and yet this intentionale is of a kind such that there really are no things of that kind. For in this case, such thoughts are about the same intentionale only fictionally., V tomto příspěvku se chci znovu zabývat úctyhodným problémem úmyslné identity , problémem toho, jak mohou být různé myšlenky ohledně stejné věci, i když tato věc neexistuje. Za prvé se pokouším ukázat, že protirealistické přístupy k tomuto problému jsou odsouzeny k selhání. Jelikož nakonec sdílejí problematický předpoklad, totiž že myšlení na něco zahrnuje identifikaci . Za druhé, budem tvrdit, že jakmile jeden odmítne tento předpoklad a místo toho tvrdí, že myšlenky jsou tvořeny buď tím, o čem jsou, jejich záměrnými objekty , nebo tím, co určuje jejich úmyslný obsah, lze řešit problém úmyslné identity jiným způsobem. Jeden může opravdu nabídnout nové řešení, které se v podstatě opírá o dva faktory: a) jaký druh metafyzické přírody úmyslné objekty účinně mají, jakmile jsou koncipovány jako schematické objekty à laJeřáb (2001, 2013); b) zda takové předměty skutečně patří do celkového ontologického inventáře toho, co existuje., Podle tohoto řešení jsou dvě myšlenky o stejném neexistujícím úmyslném předmětu, pokud i) tento objekt splňuje kritérium totožnosti pro objekty tohoto metafyzického druhu a ii) předměty tohoto druhu patří k celkové ontologické inventáři toho, co existuje, nezávisle na tom, zda existují (ve vhodném prvotřídním smyslu existence). Jako takové není toto řešení realistické ani nerealistické: pouze pokud je podmínka ii) uspokojena, různé myšlenky mohou být o stejném neexistujícím úmyslu ; jinak jsou prostě tvořeny stejným záměrným obsahem (za předpokladu, že tento obsah není v souladu s touto záměrností). Zatřetí, vyzbrojené tímto řešením, domnívám se, že lze nalézt vhodnou léčbu konkrétního a souvisejícího problému, zda se mohou lidé rozmýšlet o tom samém, i když v takovém případě skutečně neexistuje. A konečně se pokouším ukázat, že toto zacházení lze aplikovat také na případ, kdy jsou různé myšlenky podle fenomenologie stejné záměrné a přesto je tento záměr takový, že takové věci skutečně neexistují. V takovém případě jsou takové myšlenky o stejné úmyslnosti jen smyšlené., and Alberto Voltolini
Management of reservoirs for drinking water supply should be based on a thorough knowledge of water quality changes within variable conditions of hydrology, climate, nutrient loading and water storage. The two-dimensional longitudinal water quality model CE-QUAL-W2 was tested for its ability to predict concentrations of organic matter and trophic conditions in Rimov Reservoir, a small dimictic reservoir (volume 33,000,000 m3, maximum depth 43 m, hydraulic retention time 40 to 160 d) suffering from seasonally increased concentrations of humic substances and symptoms of eutrophication. The model was calibrated on two seasonal courses differing in hydrology and validated on a 1074 day period. The averages of absolute mean errors between simulated and measured vertical profiles of temperature, and concentrations of dissolved organic matter, dissolved oxygen and chlorophyll a in the validation run were 0.9 °C, 0.8 mg l-1, 1.2 mg l-1 and 0.008 mg l-1, respectively. Analysis of results and sensitivity analysis of modelling phytoplankton and phosphorus showed suitability of the mathematical description of their dynamics in the photic zone but not in the deeper layers. In spite of this partial problem, the model was found appropriate for the reliable predictions of water quality dynamics in Rimov Reservoir. and Hospodaření s vodou ve vodárenských nádržích by mělo být založeno na podrobné znalosti vlivu hydrologických, klimatických a limnologických veličin na kvalitu vody. Možnosti matematického modelování změn kvality vody byly testovány pro nádrž Římov na Malši za pomoci dvourozměrného modelu kvality vody CE-QUAL-W2. Model byl zkalibrován na dvou sezónních řadách dat pro hydrologicky různá období a poté byl uplatněn na 1074-denní řadě dat. Byly vyhodnoceny rozdíly mezi měřenými a simulovanými vertikálními profily teploty, koncentrací rozpuštěných organických látek, rozpuštěného kyslíku a chlorofylu. Tyto rozdíly vyjádřené jako velikost absolutní střední chyby byly 0,9 °C, 0,8 mg l-1 , 1,2 mg l-1 a 0.008 mg l-1 . Analýza získaných výsledků a citlivostní analýza modelu ukazují dobrou shodu mezi naměřenou a simulovanou dynamikou zmíněných veličin v eufotické zóně, v nižších a tmavších vrstvách nádrže dochází k nárůstu odchylek modelu od reality. Přes tyto dílčí problémy byl model shledán jako užitečný a nenahraditelný pomocník při úlohách řešících dopad vnějších vlivů na kvalitu vody v nádrži.
This paper reports the processes by which a single-phase 3-D CFD model of hydrodynamics in a 17-km-long dam reservoir was developed, verified and tested. A simplified VOF model of flow was elaborated to determine the effect of wind on hydrodynamics in the lake. A hexahedral mesh with over 17 million elements and a k-ω SST turbulence model were defined for single-phase simulations in steady-state conditions. The model was verified on the basis of the extensive flow measurements (StreamPro ADCP, USA). Excellent agreement (average error of less than 10%) between computed and measured velocity profiles was found. The simulation results proved a strong effect of wind on hydrodynamics in the lake, especially on the development of the water circulation pattern in the lacustrine zone.
The paper describes a 3D numerical model of the spherical particle saltation. Two stages of particle saltation were distinguished - the particle free motion in water and the particle-bed collision. The particle motion consists of the translational and rotational particle motion. A stochastic method of calculation of the particle-bed collision was developed. The collision height and the contact point were defined as random variables. Impulse equations were used and the translational and angular velocity components of the moving particle immediately after the collision were expressed as functions of the velocity components just before the collision. The dimensionless coefficients of the drag force and drag torque were determined as functions of both translational and rotational Reynolds numbers. The model is in good agreement with known experimental data. Examples of calculation of the particles’ lateral dispersion and the mean absolute values of the deviation angle of the particle trajectory are presented. and Studie popisuje 3D numerický model saltačního pohybu kulovité částice, v němž jsou uvažována dvě fáze saltačního pohybu - volný pohyb částice v proudící vodě a kolise částice se dnem. Model počítá s translačním i rotačním pohybem částice. Byla vyvinuta stochastická metoda výpočtu kolise částice se dnem. Kolizní výška a kontaktní bod byly definovány jako náhodné proměnné. Byla použita soustava momentových rovnic a složky translační a rotační rychlosti pohybující se částice po kolizi byly vyjádřeny jako funkce složek rychlosti těsně před kolizí. Bezrozměrné koeficienty odporu částice a odporu rotující částice byly určeny jako funkce translačního i rotačního Reynoldsova čísla částice. Výsledky modelu jsou v dobré shodě se známými experimentálními daty. Studie presentuje příklady výpočtu příčné disperze částice a střední absolutní hodnoty deviačního úhlu trajektorie částice.
In the marine ecological system, the prime role of water management and durability of an ecosystem is being played by the vegetation patches. The vegetation patches in open channels can significantly affect the flow velocity, discharge capacity and hinder energy fluxes, which ultimately helps in controlling catastrophic floods. In this study, the numerical simulation for turbulent flow properties, i.e. velocity distribution, Reynolds stresses and Turbulent Intensities (TI) near the circular vegetation patches with progressively increasing density, were performed using the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code ANSYS FLUENT. For examination of the turbulent flow features in the presence of circular patches with variable densities, Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes equations, and Reynolds stress model (RSM) were employed. The numerical investigation was performed in the presence of in-line emergent and submerged patches having variable vegetation density in the downstream direction. Two of the cases were investigated with three circular patches having a clear gap to patch diameter ratio of La/D = 1 (where La is the clear spacing between the vegetation patches and D is the diameter of the circular patch), and the other two cases were analyzed with two patches having a clear gap ratio of La/D = 3. The case with a clear gap ratio (La/D = 3) showed 10.6% and 153% inflation in the magnitude of longitudinal velocity at the downstream of the sparse patch (aD = 0.8) and upstream of the dense patch (aD = 3.54), respectively (where aD is the flow blockage, in which “a” represents the patch frontal area and “D” represents the patch diameter). The velocity was reduced to 94% for emergent and 99% for submerged vegetation due to successive increase in vegetation density made by introducing a middle patch which reduced the clear gap ratio (La/D = 1). For La/D = 1, the longitudinal velocities at depth z = 15cm were increased by 319% than at depth z = 6cm at the downstream of the dense patch (aD = 3.54). Whereas it was observed to 365% higher in the case of La/D = 3. The magnitude of turbulent characteristics was observed 36% higher for submerged vegetation cases having a clear gap ratio of La/D = 1. The successive increase in the patch density reduced the Reynolds stresses, turbulent kinetic energy and turbulent intensities significantly within the gap region. The major reduction in the flow velocities and turbulent properties in the gaps provides a stable environment for aquatic ecosystems nourishment and fosters sediment deposition, and supports further vegetation growth.
Monthly evapotranspiration (ET) rates over Hungary for 2000-2008 are mapped at a spatial scale of about 1 km with the help of MODIS daytime land surface temperature as well as sunshine duration, air temperature and humidity data. Mapping is achieved by a linear transformation of MODIS daytime land surface temperature values employing the complementary relationship of evaporation. Validation of the ET rates has been performed at spatial scales spanning almost three magnitudes from a few hundred meters to about a hundred kilometers employing eddy-covariance (EC) measurements and catchment water balance closures. Typically the unbiased ET estimates are within 15 % of EC values at a monthly basis, within 7 % at an annual, and within only a few percent at a multi-year basis. The ET estimates yield an especially remarkable match (relative error of 0.2 %, R2 = 0.95) with high-tower EC measurements at a monthly basis. The spatial distribution of the ET estimates confirm earlier, complex regional hydrologic model results and observations as well as yields a perfect estimate of the country’s precipitation recycling index (the ratio of the multi-year mean ET and precipitation rates spatially aggregated for the whole country) of 89.2 % vs an observed value of 89.6 %. The CREMAP method is very simple, easy to implement, requires minimal data, calibration-free, and works accurately when conditions for the complementary relationship are met. and Pomocou údajov ročlenených podľa MODIS (moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer), s využitím dennej povrchovej teploty, trvania slnečného svitu, teploty vzduchu a jeho vlhkosti boli zostrojené mapy mesačnej evapotranspirácie (ET) Maďarska pre roky 2000-2008 s priestorovým rozlíšením približne 1 km. Mapovanie bolo zrealizované lineárnou transformáciou MODIS dennej teploty povrchu s uvážením doplňujúceho vzťahu pre evapotranspiráciu CR, navrhnutou Bouchetom (1963). Výsledky dosiahnuté touto metódou boli verifikované v priestorovej mierke pokrývajúcej tri rády od niekoľkých stoviek metrov po stovky kilometrov, použijúc merania metódou pulzácií (eddy covariance, EC), a bilanciou vody v koncovom profile povodí. Typicky, hodnoty ET sú v medziach 15 % mesačných hodnôt EC a 7 % ročných hodnôt a len v medziach niekoľkých percent viacročných hodnôt evapotranspirácie, ktoré boli určené inými metódami. Hodnoty ET sú v dobrej zhode s výsledkami meraní ET na vysokej veži metódou EC (relatívna chyba 0.2 %, R2 = 0,95). Priestorové rozdelenia vypočítaných hodnôt ET potvrdzujú predchádzajúce výsledky modelovania regionálnymi modelmi, ako aj hodnoty indexu recyklácie zrážok krajiny (precipitation recycling index), čo je pomer mnohoročnej priemernej ET a zrážok agregovaných v krajine, s hodnotou 89,2 % vs pozorovaná hodnota 89,6 %. Metóda CREMAP je jednoduchá, ľahko implementovateľná, vyžaduje minimum vstupných hodnôt, nie je ju potrebné kalibrovať a keď sú splnené podmienky jej použiteľnosti, je aj dostatočne presná.
In order to fulfil their essential roles as the bearers of truth and the relata of logical relations, propositions must be public and shareable. That requirement has favoured Platonist and other non-mental views of them, despite the well-known problems of Platonism in general. Views that propositions are mental entities have correspondingly fallen out of favour, as they have difficulty in explaining how propositions could have shareable, objective properties. We revive a mentalist view of propositions, inspired by Artificial Intelligence work on perceptual algorithms, which shows how perception causes persistent mental entities with shareable properties that allow them to fulfil the traditional roles of (one core kind of) propositions. The clustering algorithms implemented in perception produce outputs which are (implicit) atomic propositions in different minds. Coordination of them across minds proceeds by game-theoretic processes of communication. The account does not rely on any unexplained notions such as mental content, representation, or correspondence (although those notions are applicable in philosophical analysis of the result).
Serious damage may occur to concrete hydraulic structures, such as water galleries, spillways, and stilling basins, due to the abrasive erosion caused by the presence of solid particles in the flow. This underlines the importance of being capable in providing characterization of the concrete from the point of view of its vulnerability to abrasive erosion, in order to improve the design of the structure and the material selection. Nevertheless, the existing apparatus for concrete abrasive erosion testing are either far from allowing realistic simulation of the actual environment in which this phenomenon occurs, or show a large degree of complexity and cost. An alternative method has been developed with the aid of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). CFD was first employed to verify the effectiveness of a new laboratory equipment. Afterwards, a parameter has been introduced which, by successful comparison against preliminary experiments, proved suitable to quantify the effect of the fluid dynamic conditions on the concrete abrasive erosion, thereby opening the way to CFD-based customization of the apparatus. In the future, the synergy of numerical and physical modelling will allow developing predictive models for concrete erosion, making it possible to reliably simulate real structures.
A number of correlations for friction factor determinations in smooth pipes have been proposed in the past decades. The accuracy and applicability of these friction factor formulas should be examined. Based on this notion the paper is designed to provide a comparative study of friction factor correlations in smooth pipes for all flow regimes of Bingham fluids. Nine models were chosen. The comparisons of the selected equations with the existing experimental results, which are available in the literature, were expressed through MARE, MRE+ , MRE- , RMSE, Ѳ, and S. The statistical comparisons were also carried out using MSC and AIC. The analyses show that the Wilson-Thomas (1985) and Morrison (2013) models are best fit models to the experimental data for the Reynolds number up to 40000. Within this range, both models can be used alternately. But beyond this Re value the discrepancy of the Wilson-Thomas model is higher than the Morrison model. In view of the fact that the Morrison model requires fewer calculations and parameters as well as a single equation is used to compute the friction factor for all flow regimes, it is the authors’ advice to use this model for friction factor estimation for the flow of Bingham fluids in smooth pipes as an alternative to the Moody chart and other implicit formulae.
Variable rate technology (VRT) in nutrient management has been developed in order to apply crop inputs according to the required amount of fertilizers. Meteorological conditions rarely differ within one field; however, differences in soil conditions responding to precipitation or evaporation results within field variations. These variations in soil properties such as moisture content, evapotranspiration ability, etc. requires site-specific treatments for the produced crops. There is an ongoing debate among experts on how to define management zones as well as how to define the required amount of fertilizers for phosphorus and nitrogen replenishment for winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) production. For management zone delineation, vegetation based or soil based data collection is applied, where various sensor technology or remote sensing is in help for the farmers. and The objective of the study reported in this paper was to investigate the effect of soil moisture data derived from Sentinel-2 satellite images moisture index and variable rate phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizer by means of variable rate application (VRA) in winter wheat in Mezőföld, Hungary. Satellite based moisture index variance at the time of sowing has been derived, calculated and later used for data comparison. Data for selected points showed strong correlation (R2 = 0.8056; n = 6) between moisture index and yield, however generally for the whole field correlation does not appear. Vegetation monitoring has been carried out by means of NDVI data calculation. On the field level, as indicated earlier neither moisture index values at sowing nor vegetation index data was sufficient to determine yield. Winter wheat production based on VRA treatment resulted significant increase in harvested crop: 5.07 t/h in 2013 compared to 8.9 t/ha in 2018. Uniformly managed (control) areas provided similar yield as VRA treated areas (8.82 and 8.9 t/ha, respectively); however, the input fertilizer was reduced by 108 kg/ha N and increased by 37 kg/ha P.
Physicalism demands an explication of what it means for something to be physical. But the most popular way of providing one—viz., characterizing the physical in terms of the postulates of a scientifically derived physical theory—is met with serious trouble. Proponents of physicalism can either appeal to current physical theory or to some future physical theory (preferably an ideal and complete one). Neither option is promising: currentism almost assuredly renders physicalism false and futurism appears to render it indeterminate or trivial. The purpose of this essay is to argue that attempts to characterize the mental encounter a similar dilemma: currentism with respect to the mental is likely to be inadequate or contain falsehoods and futurism leaves too many significant questions about the nature of mentality unanswered. This new dilemma, we show, threatens both sides of the current debate surrounding the metaphysical status of the mind.
Stacie Friend’s theory of fiction departs from those approaches that seek to identify the necessary and sufficient conditions for a work to count as fiction. She argues that this goal cannot really be achieved; instead, she appeals to the notion of genre to distinguish between fiction and nonfiction. This notion is significantly more flexible, since it invites us to identify standard—but not necessary—and counter-standard features of works of fiction in light of our classificatory practices. More specifically, Friend argues that the genre of fiction has the genre of nonfiction—and only that genre—as its contrast class. I will refer to the particular way in which Friend elaborates this claim as the contrast view. I have, nevertheless, the impression that this view unnecessarily narrows down the array of perspectives and attitudes from which we can approach works of fiction. I will thus develop a line of reasoning to the effect that the contrast view should rather be construed as picking out a particular way of relating to works of fiction that lies at the end of a continuum defined by different degrees of reflectivity and estrangement. This implies that the contrast view is false as a general claim about how we experience works of fiction, even though this view may appropriately depict a specific way of approaching such works.
This paper discusses an experiment in cognitive psychology called the Linda problem. Firstly, some natural conditions for the correctness of the interpretation of psychological experiments (such as the Linda problem) are formulated. The article is essentially a critique of the interpretation of the results of the Linda problem experiment provided by Kahneman and Tversky as well as – indirectly – their concept of heuristics. It is shown that the interpretation provided by Kahneman and Tversky does not meet the aforementioned conditions for correctness. The main argument is justified utilizing such rules of rationality as conditional probability and Grice’s conversational maxims. It is also pointed out that this argument can be reformulated in terms of the intuitive system of reasoning., Tento příspěvek pojednává o experimentu v kognitivní psychologii nazývaném problém Lindy. Za prvé jsou formulovány některé přírodní podmínky pro správnost interpretace psychologických experimentů (jako je problém Lindy). Článek je v podstatě kritikou interpretace výsledků problému Linda, který poskytli Kahneman a Tversky, stejně jako - nepřímo - jejich pojetí heuristiky. Ukazuje se, že výklad poskytnutý Kahnemanem a Tversky nesplňuje výše uvedené podmínky správnosti. Hlavní argument je odůvodněn použitím takových pravidel racionality jako podmíněné pravděpodobnosti a Griceho konverzačních maxim. Rovněž je zdůrazněno, že tento argument lze přeformulovat z hlediska intuitivního systému uvažování., and Adam Olszewski
This paper deals with the application of a fluidized layer of granular material (FLGM) for the direct separation of destabilized impurities during drinking water treatment. Further, it investigates the effect of operation parameters (fluidized layer grain size, technological arrangement, velocity gradient, retention time, dosage of destabilisation reagent and temperature) on the aggregation and separation efficiency of the layer. The tests were carried out in a pilot plant scale. Aluminium sulphate was used as the destabilisation reagent. The highest separation efficiencies were achieved, when the particles entered the fluidized layer immediately after the dosing of the destabilisation reagent, when they had the lowest degree of aggregation. The separation efficiency (ϕ) also increased with increasing velocity gradient and the maximal value was reached at the velocity gradient of about 250 s-1. The most efficient separation of aluminium was achieved at 5 °C, but the effect of temperature on the efficiency of organic matter separation (ϕTOC) was not very significant. The maximal efficiency of separation on the layer grains reached the values ϕAl = 0.81 at the optimal dosage DAl = 1.55 mg L-1 and ϕTOC = 0.31 at the optimal dosage DAl = 2.36 mg L-1. The indisputable advantage of using FLGM for the separation of impurities is that they are intercepted on the layer grains in a form of solid, water-free shell (or coat) with the density of 2450 kg m-3, and there is no need to deal with the sludge dewatering. and Příspěvek se zabývá využitím fluidní vrstvy zrnitého materiálu (FLGM) pro přímou separaci destabilizovaných nečistot při úpravě vody a vlivem provozních parametrů (velikost zrn náplně, technologické uspořádání, gradient rychlosti, doba zdržení, dávka destabilizačního činidla, teplota) na agregační a separační účinnost vrstvy. Testy byly prováděny na poloprovozním modelu fluidní vrstvy. Jako destabilizační činidlo byl použit síran hlinitý. Nejvyšší separační účinnosti byly dosahovány, pokud částice nečistot vstupovaly do fluidní vrstvy bezprostředně po nadávkování destabilizačního činidla, kdy byl jejich stupeň agregace nejnižší. Separační účinnost (ϕ) se také zvyšovala s narůstající hodnotou gradientu rychlosti ve fluidní vrstvě a maximální hodnoty dosáhla při gradientu kolem 250 s-1. Hliník byl nejúčinněji separován při nízké teplotě (5 °C), nicméně na účinnost separace organických látek (ϕTOC) teplota příliš velký vliv neměla. Maximální účinnost separace na zrnech fluidní vrstvy dosáhla hodnot ϕAl = 0,81 při optimální dávce DAl = 1,55 mg L-1 a ϕTOC = 0,31 při optimální dávce DAl = 2,36 mg L-1. Nespornou výhodou využití fluidní vrstvy jako separačního prvku je skutečnost, že nečistoty jsou na zrnech FLGM zachycovány ve formě pevné skořápky (hustota 2450 kg m-3), která neobsahuje kapalnou vodu, a kal tudíž nemusí být odvodňován.
Slurry transport in horizontal and vertical pipelines is one of the major means of transport of sands and gravels in the dredging industry. There exist 4 main flow regimes, the fixed or stationary bed regime, the sliding bed regime, the heterogeneous flow regime and the homogeneous flow regime. Of course the transitions between the regimes are not very sharp, depending on parameters like the particle size distribution. The focus in this paper is on the homogeneous regime. Often the so called equivalent liquid model (ELM) is applied, however many researchers found hydraulic gradients smaller than predicted with the ELM, but larger that the hydraulic gradient of liquid. Talmon (2011, 2013) derived a fundamental equation (method) proving that the hydraulic gradient can be smaller than predicted by the ELM, based on the assumption of a particle free viscous sub-layer. He used a 2D velocity distribution without a concentration distribution. In this paper 5 methods are described (and derived) to determine the hydraulic gradient in homogeneous flow, of which the last method is based on pipe flow with a concentration distribution. It appears that the use of von Driest (Schlichting, 1968) damping, if present, dominates the results, however applying a concentration distribution may neutralise this. The final equation contains both the damping and a concentration distribution giving the possibility to calibrate the constant in the equation with experimental data. The final equation is flexible and gives a good match with experimental results in vertical and horizontal pipelines for a value of ACv = 1.3. Data of horizontal experiments Dp = 0.05-0.30 m, d = 0.04 mm, vertical experiments Dp = 0.026 m, d = 0.125, 0.345, 0.560, and 0.750 mm.