Current debates on the nature of explanatory understanding have converged on the idea that at least one of the core components of understanding is inferential. Philosophers have characterized the inferential dimension of understanding as consisting of several related cognitive abilities to grasp a given explanation and the nexus of complementing explanations to which it belongs. Whilst analyses of both the subjective epistemic abilities related to grasping and objective features of the inferential links within explanations have received much attention, both within theories of explanation and in the literature on understanding, the criteria for evaluating the specific structure and organization of explanatory clusters or nexuses have received much less attention. Nevertheless, two notable exceptions stand out—Khalifa’s characterization of an explanatory nexus and theories of explanatory unification. I take Khalifa’s ideas, together with the basic criteria of successful explanatory unification, as my starting point. To both, I make some corrections and additions, in order to arrive at a more robust notion of an explanatory nexus and ultimately show that its structural properties and the inter-explanatory relations it contains are relevant to the resulting understanding. I propose to represent such nexuses as directed graph trees and show that some of their properties can be related to the degree of understanding that such nested explanatory structures can offer. I will further illustrate these ideas by a case study on an eco-logical theory of predation.
The paper focuses on the problem of identification of laws of nature and their demarcation from other kinds of regularities. The problem is approached from the viewpoint of several metaphysical, epistemological, logical and methodological criteria. Firstly, several dominant approaches to the problem are introduced. Secondly, the logical and semantic explicatory framework - Transparent Intensional Logic - is presented for the sake of clarification of logical forms of sentences that are supposed to express the laws of nature. Finally, a complementary strategy to the demarcation problem is proposed, including reconsideration of relevant metaphysical, epistemological, logical and methodological requirements and principles behind the former conceptions., Příspěvek je zaměřen na problematiku identifikace přírodních zákonů a jejich vymezení od jiných druhů zákonitostí. K problému je přistupováno z hlediska několika metafyzických, epistemologických, logických a metodologických kritérií. Nejprve je představeno několik dominantních přístupů k problému. Za druhé, logický a sémantický vysvětlující rámec - Transparent Intensional Logic - je prezentován pro objasnění logických forem vět, které mají vyjadřovat přírodní zákony. V neposlední řadě je navržena komplementární strategie k demarkačnímu problému, včetně přehodnocení relevantních metafyzických, epistemologických, logických a metodických požadavků a principů, které jsou v pozadí dřívějších koncepcí., and Lukáš Bielik
Slurs are both derogatory and offensive, and they are said to exhibit “derogatory force” and “offensiveness.” Almost all theories of slurs, except the truth-conditional content theory and the invocational content theory, conflate these two features and use “derogatory force” and “offensiveness” interchangeably. This paper defends and explains the distinction between slurs’ derogatory force and offensiveness by fulfilling three goals. First, it distinguishes between slurs’ being derogatory and their being offensive with four arguments. For instance, ‘Monday’, a slur in the Bostonian argot, is used to secretly derogate African Americans without causing offense. Second, this paper points out that many theories of slurs run into problems because they conflate derogatory force with offensiveness. For example, the prohibition theory’s account of offensiveness in terms of prohibitions struggles to explain why ‘Monday’ is derogatory when it is not a prohibited word in English. Third, this paper offers a new explanation of this distinction from the perspective of a speech act theory of slurs; derogatory force is different from offensiveness because they arise from two different kinds of speech acts that slurs are used to perform, i.e., the illocutionary act of derogation and the perlocutionary act of offending. This new explanation avoids the problems faced by other theories.
In this paper I intend to defend Broome’s cognitivist view that reduces practical normativity to theoretical normativity, but argue that this leaves unaccounted for distinctively practical norms that I seek to capture as a system of local obligations to have particular intentions. The krasia requirement dictates what obligations we have relative to the normative beliefs that we have but does not tell us what intentions it is rational to have all-things-considered., V této práci zamýšlím obhájit Broomeův kognitivistický pohled, který redukuje praktickou normativnost na teoretickou normativitu, ale argumentuje tím, že tyto listy nezohledňují výrazně praktické normy, které se snažím zachytit jako systém místních povinností, které mají konkrétní záměry. Požadavek krasia diktuje, jaké povinnosti máme ve vztahu k normativním názorům, které máme, ale neříká nám, jaké úmysly je racionální mít všechny věci., and David Botting
The aim of this paper is to investigate the influence of COM (Cellular Organic Matter) produced by Microcystis aeruginosa on the process of water purification by destabilisation and subsequent aggregation of the impurity particles. The research was carried out with a raw water into which COM was added. The removal efficiency of the most significant components of COM, i.e. polysaccharides and proteins, was investigated. It was found that the removal efficiency of polysaccharides and proteins was dependent on the reaction conditions (pH, type of destabilisation reagent and its dosage). The removal efficiency of COM was relatively low. It was about 46% and 41% using ferric sulphate and aluminium sulphate aggregation, respectively. In comparison to the other organic components of COM, mainly polysaccharides, the proteins are removed with a higher efficiency. The GPC analyses of the residual COM showed that the proteins of higher molecular weight were aggregated with a higher efficiency. and Cílem práce je opis vlivu buněčných organických látek (COM) produkovaných sinicí Microcystis aeruginosa na proces úpravy vody pomocí destabilizace a následné agregace znečišťujících příměsí. Výzkum byl uskutečňován se syntetickou surovou vodou, do které byly přidány COM získané laboratorní kultivací M. aeruginosa. V průběhu laboratorních testů byla sledována především účinnost odstranění dvou základních složek COM, tj. polysacharidů a proteinů. Bylo zjištěno, že tato účinnost závisí především na reakčních podmínkách (typu a dávce destabilizačního činidla a pH). Účinnost odstranění COM byla poměrně nízká, maximální dosažená účinnost byla 46% při destabilizaci pomocí síranu železitého a 41% při použití síranu hlinitého. Bylo zjištěno, že s vyšší účinností jsou odstraňovány proteiny, obzvláště pak proteiny s vyšší molekulovou hmotností.
Results of the effect of subsidence of the Little Hungarian Plain on vertical movement of the riverbed and the downstream riverbed slope changes of the regulated flowchannel of Danube are presented. Subsidence of the flowchannel is also affected by the tectonic movements. The subsidence rate is attenuated by the andesitic Börzsöny and Visegrád Mountains since they function as natural barriers for the river. In the eastern vicinity of the Börzsöny and the Mátra, where the river flows in loose, unconsolidated sediments, the deepening of the flowchannel is considerable. and Príspevok prezentuje výsledky účinku poklesu Malej Uhorskej nížiny (geogr.) na vertikálny pohyb riečneho koryta a na zmeny pozdĺžneho sklonu upraveného koryta Dunaja. Pokles koryta toku je ovplyvnený aj tektonickými pohybmi. Intenzita poklesu je tlmená účinkom andezitovej línie horských celkov Börzsöny a Visegrád, ktoré pôsobia na rieku ako prírodné bariéry. Na východ od týchto horských celkov, kde rieka preteká cez voľnejšie uložené, nespevnené usadeniny, vyskytuje sa značné prehĺbenie riečneho koryta.
We established a multifactoral long-term field experiment at the Látókép experimental site of the University of Debrecen (Debrecen, Hungary), on mid-heavy calcareous chernozem soil in 1984, using experimental data from 17 years (1990-2008). We examined the extent to which soil fertility affects maize yield under natural conditions (without fertilisation). We analysed the effect of precipitation in the winter period (from the harvest of the previous crop (maize) until sowing (i.e. October-March)) and the growing season (i.e. April-September) on yield and we evaluated yield per FAO group. We examined the joint effect of crop year and hybrid maturity groups on maize yield; then we evaluated how hybrid maturity groups per crop year and wet and dry years per ripening group affected maize yield. It was shown that the pH value of soil significantly affected yield and also that there was a strong positive correlation between pH value and yield (r = 0.81) at a 1% significance level. The correlation between the two variables is described by a linear regression line. The slope shows that a 0.1 soil pH increase results in a 510 kg ha-1 maize yield increase on average. The correlation between the amount of precipitation during the growing season and maize yield is average, positive (r = 0.718) and linear. Based on the parameters of the estimated regression line - within non-fertilised conditions - 1 mm increase of precipitation resulted in a 9 kg ha-1 increase in yield. The analysis of the joint effect of hybrid maturity groups and crop year on yield showed that crop year determines standard deviation six times more than hybrid maturity groups, whereas the effect their interaction was not significant. and Práca bsahuje výsledky multifaktorového, dlhodobého pokusu na experimentálnej ploche Látókép, Univerzity v Debrecíne (Debrecen, Maďarsko). Experiment prebiehal od roku 1984, v tejto práci boli použité údaje z experimentu získané počas 17tich rokov (1990-2008). Pôda je stredne ťažká černozem. Bol skúmaný vplyv pôdnej úrodnosti na úrodu kukurice v prirodzených podmienkach, bez hnojenia. Študoval sa predovšetkým vplyv zrážok počas zimného obdobia (od zberu úrody kukurice až po nasledujúcu sejbu, t.j. od októbra do marca) a vplyv zrážok počas vegetačného obdobia (apríl -september) na úrodu kukurice. Okrem toho sa študoval vplyv ''sezóny'' a skupín skorosti hybridov na úrodu kukurice. Bolo vyhodnotený tiež vplyv skupiny skorosti hybridov počas suchých a mokrých rokov na úrodu kukurice. Bolo preukázané, že hodnota pH pôdy významne ovplyvňuje úrodu; súčiniteľ lineárnej korelácie medzi pH a úrodou na úrovni významnosti 1% bol r = 0,81. Z tejto korelácie vyplýva, že zvýšenie pH o 0,1 spôsobuje zvýšenie úrody kukurice priemerne o 510 kg ha-1. Korelácia medzi úrnom zrážok počas vegetačného obdobia kukurice a úrodou je pozitívna a lineárna (r = 0,718), z analýzy vyplýva, že zvýšenie úhrnu zrážok o 1 mm spôsobí priemerné zvýšenie úrody kukurice o 9 kg ha-1. Z výsledkov analýzy spoločného vplyvu skupín skorosti hybridov a sezóny vyplýva, že konkrétna sezóna ovplyvňuje tvorbu úrod 6-krát významnejšie, ako skupina skorosti hybridov; interakcia medzi skupinami skorosti hybridov a vlastnosťami sezóny nie je významná.
Soil water repellency causes at least temporal changes in the hydrological properties of a soil which result in, among other things, suboptimal growing conditions and increased irrigation requirements. Water repellency in soil is more widespread than previously thought and has been identified in many soil types under a wide array of climatic conditions worldwide. Consequences of soil water repellency include loss of wettability, increased runoff and preferential flow, reduced access to water for plants, reduced irrigation efficiency, increased requirement for water and other inputs, and increased potential for non-point source pollution. Research indicates that certain soil surfactants can be used to manage soil water repellency by modifying the flow dynamics of water and restoring soil wettability. This results in improved hydrological behavior of those soils. Consequently, the plant growth environment is also improved and significant water conservation is possible through more efficient functioning of the soil. and Vodoodpudivosť pôdy spôsobuje prinajmenšom dočasné zmeny v hydrologických vlastnostiach pôdy, ktoré okrem iného môžu viesť k suboptimálnym podmienkam rastu rastlín a k zvýšenej potrebe závlah. Vodoodpudivosť pôdy je rozšírenejší jav, ako sa pôvodne predpokladalo; bola identifikovaná v mnohých pôdnych typoch a klimatických podmienkach na celom svete. Dôsledkom vodoodpudivosti pôdy je strata zmáčavosti, zvýšený povrchový odtok a preferenčné prúdenie, znížená dostupnosť vody a iných vstupov pre rastliny, znížený účinok závlah, zvýšené požiadavky na vodu a iné vstupy, ako aj zvýšené riziko plošného znečistenia. Výskum naznačuje, že niektoré povrchovo aktívne látky (soil surfactants) môžu upraviť vodoodpudivosť pôdy obnovením omáčania a modifikáciou dynamiky vody. Výsledkom je zlepšenie hydrologických vlastností pôdy. Podobne, výsledkom je zlepšenie prostredia pre rast rastlín, zvýšenie retencie vody v pôde a teda aj efektívnejšia funkcia pôdy.
Different sustainable systems of husbandry on soil with various protective technologies are frequently studied. Direct sowing without ploughing is one of the alternatives. This article presents results of the effect of conventional tillage (CT) and no-tillage system (NT) on soil bulk density, soil porosity, maximum capillary capacity and available water capacity of Gleyic Fluvisol in conditions of the East-Slovakian Lowland. Observed years 1999 - 2005 from point of wiev of annual sum of precipitation are valued as dry till humid and of annual average air temperature as normal or warm. The effect of used agrotechnical arrangements was statistically highly significant (α = 0.01) for porosity changes and statistically significant for soil bulk density (α = 0.05). Non-significant effect was found for maximum capillary capacity and available water capacity. In the soil layer 0 - 0.3 m during years 1999 - 2005 soil bulk density increased about 22 kg m-3 (1.54 %) at no-tillage system in comparison to conventional tillage. At no-tillage system average values of porosity decreased about 1.32 %, maximum capillary capacity and available water capacity non-significantly decreased about 0.32 % in comparison to conventional tillage. and V trvalo udržateľných sústavách hospodárenia na pôde sa do popredia dostávajú rôzne ochranné technológie obrábania pôdy, medzi ktoré patrí aj priama sejba bez orby. Predkladaný príspevok sa zaoberá vplyvom konvenčnej agrotechniky (CT) a bezorbového systému (NT) na objemovú hmotnosť, pórovitosť, maximálnu kapilárnu kapacitu a využiteľnú vodnú kapacitu fluvizeme glejovej v podmienkach Východoslovenskej nížiny. Sledované roky 1999 - 2005 sú z hľadiska ročných zrážkových úhrnov hodnotené ako suché až vlhké a z hľadiska priemerných ročných teplôt vzduchu ako normálne, resp. teplé. Vplyv použitých systémov agrotechnických opatrení sa štatisticky významne (α = 0,01) prejavil pri pórovitosti, štatisticky na hranici významnosti (α = 0,05) pri objemovej hmotnosti a štatisticky nevýznamne pri maximálnej kapilárnej kapacite a využiteľnej vodnej kapacite. V porovnaní s konvenčnou agrotechnikou sa pri bezorbovom systéme zvýšili priemerné hodnoty objemovej hmotnosti vo vrstve pôdneho profilu do 0 - 0,3 m za roky 1999 - 2005 o 22 kg m-3 (1,54 %); priemerné hodnoty pórovitosti sa znížili o 1,32 %, hodnoty maximálnej kapilárnej kapacity a využiteľnej vodnej kapacity o 0,32 %.
The changes of runoff in the middle reaches of the Yellow River basin of China have received considerable attention owing to their sharply decline during recent decades. In this paper, the impacts of rainfall characteristics and land use and cover change on water yields in the Jingle sub-basin of the middle reaches of the Yellow River basin were investigated using a combination of statistical analysis and hydrological simulations. The Levenberg Marquardt and Analysis of Variance methods were used to construct multivariate, nonlinear, model equations between runoff coefficient and rainfall intensity and vegetation coverage. The land use changes from 1971 to 2017 were ascertained using transition matrix analysis. The impact of land use on water yields was estimated using the M-EIES hydrological model. The results show that the runoff during flood season (July to September) decreased significantly after 2000, whereas slightly decreasing trend was detected for precipitation. Furthermore, there were increase in short, intense, rainfall events after 2000 and this rainfall events were more conducive to flood generation. The “Grain for Green” project was carried out in 1999, and the land use in the middle reaches of the Yellow River improved significantly, which make the vegetation coverage (Vc) of the Jingle sub-basin increased by 13%. When Vc approaches 48%, the runoff coefficient decreased to the lowest, and the vegetation conditions have the greatest effect on reducing runoff. Both land use and climate can change the water yield in the basin, but for areas where land use has significantly improved, the impact of land use change on water yield plays a dominant role. The results acquired in this study provide a useful reference for water resources planning and soil and water conservation in the erodible areas of the middle reaches of the Yellow River basin.