The paper is a contribution to the debate on the epistemological status of thought experiments. I deal with the epistemological uniqueness of experiments in the sense of their irreducibility to other sources of justification. In particular, I criticize an influential argument for the irreducibility of thought experiments to general arguments. First, I introduce the radical empiricist theory of eliminativism, which considers thought experiments to be rhetorically modified arguments, uninteresting from the epistemological point of view. Second, I present objections to the theory, focusing on the critique of eliminativism by Tamar Szabó Gendler based on the reconstruction of Galileo’s famous Pisa experiment. I show that her reconstruction is simplistic and that a more elaborate reconstruction is needed for an appropriate assess-ment of the epistemic power of general argument. I propose such a reconstruction and demonstrate that the general version of the Pisa experiment is epistemically equal to the particular one. Thus, from an epistemological perspective, Galileo’s thought experiment is reducible to a straightforward argument without particular premises., Příspěvek je příspěvkem do debaty o epistemologickém stavu experimentů myšlení. Zabývám se epistemologickou jedinečností experimentů ve smyslu jejich neredukovatelnosti na jiné zdroje ospravedlnění. Zvláště kritizuji vlivný argument pro ireducibilitu myšlenkových experimentů k obecným argumentům. Nejprve představuji radikální empirickou teorii eliminativismu, která považuje myšlenkové experimenty za rétoricky modifikované argumenty, nezajímavé z epistemologického hlediska. Za druhé, předkládám námitky proti teorii, zaměřené na kritiku eliminativismu Tamara Szabó Gendlera na základě rekonstrukce slavného experimentu v Pise v Galileu. Ukazuji, že její rekonstrukce je zjednodušující a že je zapotřebí propracovanější rekonstrukce pro vhodné posouzení epistemické moci obecného argumentu. Navrhuji takovou rekonstrukci a prokázat, že obecná verze experimentu v Pise je epistemicky rovnocenná té konkrétní. Z epistemologického hlediska je tedy Galileův myšlenkový experiment redukovatelný na jednoduchý argument bez konkrétních prostor., and Marek Picha
An application of different mulch materials may lead to changes in soil properties. Our previous study, focused on the impact of various mulches during the 4-year period, showed that the change in some properties can be very rapid (e.g., soil pH), but in other cases such as hydraulic properties, the changes can be gradual. To find out, whether the extension of the mulching period will further affect the studied soil properties, the experiment continued for another 2 years. Differences between values of organic carbon content (Cox), soil physical quality (Sinf), gravitational water (GW) and readily available water (RAW) of soils not covered by any mulch and under various mulches (bark chips; wood chips; wheat straw; Agrotex EKO+ decomposable matting; polypropylene fabric covered bark chips; crushed stone) were much larger than those observed in our previous study. On the other hand, the opposite trend was observed for the water stable aggregates (WSA) index or soil pH. Differences between additionally measured hydraulic conductivities at the pressure head of −2 cm and repellency index (RI) were mostly insignificant. Results indicated that organic mulches can either positively (e.g., increase WSA index and Cox, and decrease GW) or negatively (e.g., decrease Sinf and RAW, and increase RI) affect soil properties.
Upon presenting perceptual theories of emotions and their main weaknesses we concentrate on Prinz’s account that characterizes emotions as valent embodied appraisals. Granting his assumptions we propose a counterargument against his proposal, based on Darwin’s work on bodily expression of emotions. We show that it is possible for non-emotional mental states to be brought about by perceptions of bodily changes and that these perceptions satisfy both the conditions of valence and externally directed semantics that Prinz believes are unique to emotions. and Juraj Hvorecký
Regional frequency analysis of heavy precipitation amounts based on the estimation of the parameters of a regional distribution function using L-moments is adopted for the specific geographical-climatological settings of Slovakia. The paper focuses on the first step of the regional L-moment algorithm (Hosking, Wallis, 1997), which is the delineation of homogeneous regions. Objective and process-based logical pooling techniques are used to form homogeneous pooling groups of rainfall gauging stations for regional frequency analysis of k-day precipitation amounts (k = 1 to 5 days). Even though the delineation of homogeneous regions by means of objective methods is generally accepted and recommended in the literature, it is concluded here that such a pooling of similar sites should not be carried out automatically in precipitation analysis. Instead, a combination of physical/geomorphological considerations and objective methods should be preferred. and Článok sa zaoberá regionálnou frekvenčnou analýzou mimoriadnych úhrnov zrážok, ktorá je založená na odhade parametrov regionálneho rozdelenia pravdepodobnosti pomocou L-momentov a ktorá sa aplikuje v špecifických geograficko-klimatických podmienkach Slovenska. Článok je užšie zameraný na prvý krok tzv. regionálneho L-momentového algoritmu (Hosking, Wallis, 1997), ktorým je vyčlenenie homogénnych regiónov pre k-denné úhrny zrážok (k = 1 až 5). Na formovanie homogénnych zoskupení klimatologických a zrážkomerných staníc sa použila objektívna aj subjektívna (logická) metodika. Napriek tomu, že odborná literatúra všeobecne uznáva a odporúča použiť objektívne postupy na vyčlenenie homogénnych regiónov, v štúdii sme usúdili, že by sa vo frekvenčnej analýze úhrnov zrážok navzájom podobné stanice nemali vyčleňovať automaticky. Namiesto toho odporúčame, aby sa k tomuto účelu použila kombinácia objektívnych postupov, resp. úvah založených na fyzicko-geografických charakteristikách krajiny
A new optimization model for determining the minimum cost for the design of water distribution systems is described in the paper based on a combination of linear programming methodology (LP) and a genetic algorithms approach (GA). The optimal design of looped hydraulic pipe networks belongs to the class of large combinatorial optimization problems that are difficult to handle using conventional operational research techniques. A many different heuristic algorithms have been developed in the last two decades and applied to the design of water distribution systems. Although many research efforts have been made for the sake of achieving the optimal design of the looped water distribution networks, there is still some uncertainty about finding a generally reliable method. The authors of the paper are proposing a method in which the main emphasis is placed on its higher reliability of finding an optimal solution in terms of closeness to a global minimum. In this study the efficiency of GA optimization was improved through a hybrid method, which combines the GA method (heuristic component) with a linear programming methodology (deterministic component). The proposed method was tested on three benchmark least-cost design problems and compared with other methods and the results suggest that the GALP consistently provides better solutions. It was investigated that the method gives results more reliable in terms of closeness to a global minimum. The proposed method guarantees very close convergence to a global optimum. The method is intended for use in the design and rehabilitation of drinking water systems and pressurized irrigation systems as well. and V článku je predstavený model cenovej optimalizácie pri navrhovaní priemerov potrubí okruhových tlakových rozvodov určených na distribúciu vody, ktorý je založený na kombinácii metódy lineárneho programovania (LP) a genetických algoritmov (GA). Cenovo optimálny návrh okruhových sietí patrí do triedy relatívne veľkých kombinatorických problémov, ktoré sú ťažko riešiteľné klasickými technikami matematického programovania. Z tohto dôvodu bolo v posledných dvoch dekádach vyvinutých aj viacero heuristických algoritmov. Napriek tomu pretrváva určitá neistota, pokiaľ ide o spoľahlivosť existujúcich metód, ktorá sa odzrkadľuje ich malým využitím v praxi. Autori predkladajú metódu, v ktorej sa pri hľadaní optimálneho návrhu okruhových sústav v zmysle priblíženia sa ku globálnemu minimu hlavný dôraz kladie na vyššiu spoľahlivosť. Ide o hybridnú metódu, ktorá kombinuje genetické algoritmy (heuristická zložka) s lineárnym programovaním (deterministická zložka). Autori verifikujú metódu na benchmarkovej distribučnej sústave, používanej na testovanie v odbornej literatúre a na dvoch modeloch derivovaných z tejto sústavy so známym riešením. Výsledky potvrdzujú, že v porovnaní s existujúcimi modelmi navrhovaná metóda zaručí vyššiu úroveň kvality dosahovaných výsledkov, tak v zmysle priblíženia sa ku globálnemu minimu, ako aj z hľadiska jednoduchšieho nastavovania parametrov GA a rýchlejšej konvergencie. Metódu možno použiť pri navrhovaní nových systémov aj na rekonštrukciu existujúcich systémov na rozvod pitnej vody a pri navrhovaní tlakových závlahových systémov.
Hydrological processes play important roles in soil erosion processes of the hillslopes. This study was conducted to investigate the hydrological processes and the associated erosional responses on the purple soil slope. Based on a comprehensive survey of the Wangjiaqiao watershed in the Three Gorges Reservoir, four typical slope gradients (5°, 10°, 15°and 20°) were applied to five rainfall intensities (0.6, 1.1, 1.61, 2.12 and 2.54 mm·min-1). The results showed that both surface and subsurface runoff varied greatly depending on the rainfall intensity and slope gradient. Surface runoff volume was 48.1 to 280.1 times of that for subsurface runoff. The critical slope gradient was about 10°. The sediment yield rate increased with increases in both rainfall intensity and slope gradient, while the effect of rainfall intensity on the sediment yield rate was greater than slope gradient. There was a good linear relationship between sediment yield rate and Reynolds numbers, flow velocity and stream power, while Froude numbers, Darcy-Weisbach and Manning friction coefficients were not good hydraulic indicators of the sediment yield rate of purple soil erosion. Among the three good indicators (Re, v and w), stream power was the best predictor of sediment yield rate (R2 = 0.884). Finally, based on the power regression relationship between sediment yield rate, runoff rate, slope gradient and rainfall intensity, an erosion model was proposed to predict the purple soil erosion (R2 = 0.897). The results can help us to understand the relationship between flow hydraulics and sediment generation of slope erosion and offer useful data for the building of erosion model in purple soil.
Water-chemistry was used to assist in understanding the effect of human and natural activities on the Jordan and Yarmouk Rivers. Eighty-eight water samples were collected from different locations along the flow paths of both Jordan and Yarmouk Rivers, and analyzed for major ions. The analyzed water samples of Yarmouk River were predominantly alkaline water with prevailing chloride and sodium; and characterized with low TDS values that range from 571 to 801 mg l-1. The predominant water type of Jordan river is alkaline earth with prevailing chloride and increase portion of alkalies and characterized by high TDS value that range from 2914 to 3224 mg l-1. The sampling took place in different time periods between July 1996 and April 1996 to determine the effect of changing seasons on the chemistry of the studied rivers. From the upper to lower reaches of both Jordan and Yarmouk rivers, a systematic increase of most of the measured major ions concentrations is reported in July 1996. Strong variations were observed in the water chemistry between the different locations. As the distance increase from the mouth of the rivers, so did the salinity of the water. The study found that the Jordan River is affected by groundwater system and the related anthropogenic activities on both sides of the Jordan Valley; where saline groundwater is mainly resulted from ancient entrapped sea water or brine deep seated origin. The water which dilute Yarmouk river is a Ca+2-HCO3-. The in the ion concentrations in 1996 than those reported in 1969 is due to the increase of the anthropogenic effects. and Vplyv antropogénnych aprirodzených faktorov na kvalitu vôd riek Jordán a Jarmuk môže byt hodnotený aj pomocou hydrochemických analýz. Pozdlž tokov Jordán a Jarmuk bolo odobratých a analyzovaných 88 vzoriek vody. Vzorky vody rieky Jarmuk boli prevažne alkalické s prevládajúcimi iónmi chlóru a sodíka, charakterizované nízkymi hodnotami celkovej mineralizácie (TDS), ktorá bola v rozmedzí 571 - 801 mg l-1 . Voda v rieke Jordán je prevažne alkalická s dominantnými chloridmi a zvýšeným podielom alkalických iónov s vysokou TDS v rozmedzí 2914 - 3224 mg l-1 . Vzorky vody boli odobraté v case medzi aprílom a júlom 1996, aby sa dala urcit zmena chemizmu tokov pocas roka. Pocas júla 1996 bola zistená v oboch tokoch od pramena po ústie zvyšujúca sa koncentrácia sledovaných iónov. Medzi jednotlivými lokalitami boli zaregistrované velké rozdiely v koncentráciách sledovaných prvkov. Výskumom sa zistilo, že rieka Jordán je ovplyvnená podzemnými vodami aantropogénnou cinnostou na oboch brehoch. Slané podzemné vody sú dôsledkom predovšetkým dávneho záchytu morskej vody, a existencie solných vrstiev v povodí. Zmeny v koncentrácii iónov v riekach medzi rokmi 1969 a 1996 môžu byt dôsledkom antropogénnej cinnosti.